Basic Concepts of Environmental Chemistry, Second Edition

by Connell; Des W.

• ISBN13: 9781566706766
• ISBN10: 1566706769
• Edition: 2nd
• Format: Hardcover
• Copyright: 2005-07-14
• Publisher: CRC Press

Summary

Incorporating advances made since the 1997 publication of the first edition, this book includes material on toxic metals, atmospheric pollution, radionuclides, acid drainage water, and risk assessment. It addresses topics such as polarity, partition behavior, fugacity, and solubility as well as the basic chemistry of compounds and processes in the environment. The author begins with coverage of the basic properties of chemicals in terms of polarity, water solubility, and vapor pressure, followed by chapters on environmental transformations and toxicity. Expanding on these fundamentals, he describes contaminants in the environment and pollution processes in the air, water and soil environments.

Table of Contents

PART I Principles of Environmental Chemistry
Chapter 1 The Role and Importance of Environmental Chemistry	3	(14)
1.1 Alchemy	3	(1)
1.2 The Chemical Age	4	(1)
1.3 Environmental Chemistry	5	(2)
1.4 The Scope of Environmental Chemistry	7	(2)
1.5 Chemistry in Environmental Management	9	(1)
1.6 Basic Concept of This Book	10	(2)
1.7 Key Points	12	(1)
References	12	(1)
Questions	13	(1)
Answers	14	(3)
PART II Basic Properties of Chemicals in the Environment
Chapter 2 Bonds and Molecules: Their Influence on Physical-Chemical Properties in the Environment	17	(32)
2.1 Introduction	17	(1)
2.2 States of Matter in the Environment	17	(2)
2.3 Nature of Bonds	19	(4)
2.4 Polarity of Molecules	23	(1)
2.5 Ionic Compounds	24	(4)
2.6 Intermolecular Forces	28	(2)
2.7 Physical-Chemical Properties of Compounds	30	(6)
2.7.1 Melting Point (MP)	30	(1)
2.7.2 Boiling Point (BP)	31	(2)
2.7.3 Solubility	33	(3)
2.8 Partition Behavior	36	(7)
2.9 Key Points	43	(1)
References	44	(1)
Questions	44	(3)
Answers	47	(2)
Chapter 3 Environmental Transformation and Degradation Processes	49	(30)
3.1 Introduction	49	(1)
3.2 Abiotic Transformation and Degradation	50	(10)
3.2.1 Oxidation through Combustion	50	(5)
3.2.2 Phototransformation	55	(4)
3.2.3 Hydrolysis	59	(1)
3.3 Biotransformation and Biodegradation	60	(7)
3.3.1 Microbial Transformation	60	(2)
3.3.2 Types of Microbial Degradation	62	(1)
3.3.3 Patterns of Growth	62	(1)
3.3.4 Co-metabolism	63	(1)
3.3.5 Reduction-Oxidation (Redox) Processes in Natural Waters	63	(2)
3.3.6 Terrestrial Systems	65	(1)
3.3.7 Degradation by Higher Organisms	66	(1)
3.4 Kinetics of Transformation and Degradation	67	(5)
3.4.1 Kinetic Expressions	67	(3)
3.4.2 Volatilization	70	(2)
3.5 Key Points	72	(2)
References	74	(1)
Questions	74	(2)
Answers	76	(3)
Chapter 4 Environmental Toxicology	79	(26)
4.1 Introduction	79	(1)
4.2 Routes and Mechanisms of Toxicant Entry to Organisms	80	(4)
4.2.1 Mechanisms of Entry to Organisms	80	(2)
4.2.2 Chemical Properties of Compounds That Cross Cell Membranes	82	(1)
4.2.3 Routes of Entry to Organisms	83	(1)
4.3 Distribution of Toxicants within the Organism	84	(2)
4.4 Biotransformation of Toxicants	86	(1)
4.4.1 Principles of Biotransformation	86	(1)
4.4.2 Phase I Transformations	87	(1)
4.4.3 Phase II Transformations	87	(1)
4.4.4 Sites of Biotransformation	87	(1)
4.5 Excretion of Toxicants	87	(1)
4.6 Classes of Poisons Based on Effect	88	(1)
4.7 Quantitative Principles of Toxicology	89	(6)
4.7.1 Background	89	(1)
4.7.2 Measures of Toxicity	90	(4)
4.7.3 Factors Influencing Toxicity	94	(1)
4.8 Experimental Testing for Toxicity: Bioassays	95	(3)
4.8.1 Types of Bioassays	95	(1)
4.8.2 Calculating Toxicological Data	96	(2)
4.9 Alternative, More Humane Methods for Toxicity Assessment	98	(1)
4.10 Key Points	99	(1)
References	100	(1)
Questions	100	(1)
Answers	101	(4)
PART III Contaminants in the Environment
Chapter 5 Petroleum Hydrocarbons	105	(16)
5.1 Introduction	105	(1)
5.2 Chemical Nature of Petroleum	106	(4)
5.2.1 Hydrocarbons	106	(2)
5.2.2 Nonhydrocarbons	108	(2)
5.3 Petroleum Hydrocarbons in the Environment	110	(7)
5.3.1 Dispersion	110	(1)
5.3.2 Evaporation	110	(1)
5.3.3 Dissolution	111	(2)
5.3.4 Emulsion Formation	113	(1)
5.3.5 Photooxidation	113	(1)
5.3.6 Microbial Transformation	114	(3)
5.4 Petroleum and Aquatic Organisms	117	(1)
5.5 Key Points	118	(1)
References	119	(1)
Questions	119	(1)
Answers	120	(1)
Chapter 6 Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBS) and Dioxins	121	(26)
6.1 Introduction	121	(1)
6.2 The Naming System for PCBs and PCDDs: Nomenclature	122	(3)
6.3 Sources of Environmental Contamination	125	(4)
6.3.1 PCBs	125	(1)
6.3.2 Dioxins	126	(3)
6.4 Physical-Chemical Properties of PCBs and Dioxins	129	(2)
6.5 Environmental Distribution and Behavior	131	(5)
6.6 Toxicity	136	(6)
6.6.1 PCBs	136	(2)
6.6.2 Dioxins	138	(4)
6.7 Key Points	142	(1)
References	143	(1)
Questions	143	(2)
Answers	145	(2)
Chapter 7 Synthetic Polymers: Plastics, Elastomers, and Synthetic Fibers	147	(20)
7.1 Introduction	147	(1)
7.2 The Nature of Synthetic Polymers	148	(1)
7.3 Classification and Definitions	149	(2)
7.4 Synthesis of Synthetic Polymers	151	(4)
7.4.1 Polymerization Processes	151	(3)
7.4.2 Cross-Linking	154	(1)
7.5 Environmental Characteristics	155	(7)
7.5.1 Combustion	155	(1)
7.5.2 Biodegradation	156	(3)
7.5.3 Photodegradation	159	(2)
7.5.4 Recycling	161	(1)
7.6 Key Points	162	(2)
References	164	(1)
Questions	164	(2)
Answers	166	(1)
Chapter 8 Pesticides	167	(24)
8.1 Introduction	167	(1)
8.2 The Chlorinated Hydrocarbon Pesticides	168	(8)
8.2.1 Chemical Structure and Synthesis	169	(1)
8.2.2 Physical-Chemical Properties	170	(1)
8.2.3 Environmental Properties	171	(2)
8.2.4 Bioconcentration Properties	173	(1)
8.2.5 Toxicity	174	(1)
8.2.6 Ecological Effects	175	(1)
8.2.7 Long-Range Transport: The Persistent Organic Pollutants	175	(1)
8.3 The Organophosphate Insecticides	176	(3)
8.3.1 Chemical Form and Synthesis	176	(1)
8.3.2 Physical-Chemical Properties	176	(2)
8.3.3 Environmental Properties	178	(1)
8.3.4 Toxic Activity	178	(1)
8.4 The Carbamates	179	(1)
8.4.1 Environmental Properties	179	(1)
8.4.2 Mechanism of Toxic Action	180	(1)
8.5 Pyrethrins and Pyrethroids	180	(3)
8.5.1 Physical Properties	180	(1)
8.5.2 Mechanism of Action and Toxicology	181	(1)
8.5.3 Synthetic Pyrethroids	182	(1)
8.6 Phenoxyacetic Acid Herbicides	183	(1)
8.7 Key Points	184	(3)
References	187	(1)
Questions	187	(1)
Answers	188	(3)
Chapter 9 Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs)	191	(18)
9.1 Introduction	191	(1)
9.2 Chemical Nature of PAHs	191	(1)
9.3 Environmental Properties	192	(2)
9.4 Formation of PAHs	194	(1)
9.5 Sources of the PAHs	195	(2)
9.6 Occurrence and Behavior of PAHs in the Environment	197	(2)
9.7 Carcinogenicity and Toxicity of the PAHs	199	(1)
9.8 Effects on Human Health and the Natural Environment	200	(2)
9.9 Key Points	202	(1)
References	202	(1)
Questions	203	(1)
Answers	204	(5)
Chapter 10 Soaps and Detergents	209	(18)
10.1 Introduction	209	(1)
10.2 Surfactants: The Active Cleaning Agents	210	(2)
10.3 Synthesis	212	(3)
10.3.1 Soaps	212	(2)
10.3.2 Alkylbenzene Sulfonates and Alkyl Sulfates	214	(1)
10.3.3 Alkyl Ethoxylates	215	(1)
10.4 Detergents	215	(4)
10.4.1 Surfactant Components	215	(2)
10.4.2 Builders	217	(1)
10.4.3 Enzymes and Bleaches	218	(1)
10.5 Cationic Surfactants	219	(1)
10.6 Toxicity	219	(1)
10.7 Biodegradation	220	(2)
10.8 Sorption and Bioaccumulation	222	(1)
10.9 Natural Surfactants	222	(1)
10.10 Key Points	222	(3)
References	225	(1)
Questions	225	(1)
Answers	226	(1)
Chapter 11 Metals in the Environment	227	(26)
11.1 Introduction	227	(2)
11.2 Sources of Metals in the Environment	229	(2)
11.2.1 Natural Sources	229	(1)
11.2.2 Pollution Sources	229	(2)
11.3 Behavior and Fate in Abiotic Environments	231	(4)
11.3.1 Metals in Aquatic Systems	231	(2)
11.3.2 Metal Speciation in Freshwater and Seawater	233	(1)
11.3.3 Bioavailability of Metals	233	(1)
11.3.4 Interactions between Aqueous and Solid Phases	234	(1)
11.4 Transport and Transformations in Biota	235	(1)
11.4.1 Microbial-Metal Interactions	235	(1)
11.4.2 Uptake, Excretion, and Regulation Processes	236	(1)
11.5 Biological Effects of Metals	236	(1)
11.5.1 Essential and Nonessential Trace Metals	236	(1)
11.5.2 Metal Tolerance and Biotransformation	236	(1)
11.5.3 Bioaccumulation	236	(1)
11.6 Toxic Effects	237	(1)
11.6.1 Effects on Human Health	238	(1)
11.7 Organometallic Compounds	238	(4)
11.7.1 Background	238	(2)
11.7.2 Sources	240	(1)
11.7.2.1 Formation in the Environment	240	(1)
11.7.2.2 Environmental Occurrence	240	(1)
11.7.3 Behavior	241	(1)
11.8 Radionuclides	242	(3)
11.8.1 Background	242	(1)
11.8.2 Nuclear Energy Usage	243	(2)
11.8.3 Radioactive Inputs into the Environment	245	(1)
11.8.4 Biological Effects of Radiation	245	(1)
11.9 Key Points	245	(3)
References	248	(1)
Questions	248	(1)
Answers	249	(4)
PART IV Processes in the Natural Environment
Chapter 12 Atmospheric Chemistry and Pollution	253	(28)
12.1 Introduction	253	(1)
12.2 Overview of Photosynthesis and Respiration	254	(2)
12.3 The Environmental Significance of Photosynthesis and Respiration	256	(6)
12.3.1 Photosynthesis, Respiration, and the Atmosphere over Geological Time	256	(2)
12.3.2 The Greenhouse Effects	258	(4)
12.4 Reactive Intermediates in the Atmosphere	262	(3)
12.4.1 Hydroxyl Radical	262	(1)
12.4.2 Ozone	263	(1)
12.4.3 Nitrate Radical	264	(1)
12.5 Formation of Peroxyacetyl Nitrate (PAN) and Related Compounds	265	(3)
12.6 Halogenated Hydrocarbons, Chlorofluorocarbons, and the Ozone Layer	268	(4)
12.7 Formation of Oxides of Sulfur and Nitrogen and Acid Rain	272	(1)
12.8 Key Points	273	(3)
References	276	(1)
Questions	276	(1)
Answers	277	(4)
Chapter 13 Chemistry of Natural Waters and Water Pollution	281	(42)
13.1 Introduction	281	(1)
13.2 Physicochemical Properties of Water	282	(4)
13.3 Organic Components in Natural Waters	286	(2)
13.4 Carbon and Nitrogen Transformations in Natural Water Bodies	288	(4)
13.4.1 The Carbon Cycle	288	(1)
13.4.2 The Nitrogen Cycle	289	(3)
13.5 Estuarine Systems	292	(2)
13.5.1 Physical Interaction of Fresh- and Seawater in Estuaries	292	(2)
13.6 Oceanic Systems	294	(3)
13.6.1 Salinity of Seawater	294	(1)
13.6.2 Vertical Depth Profiles of Seawater Composition	294	(3)
13.7 Deoxygenating Substances in Water Bodies	297	(9)
13.7.1 Background	297	(1)
13.7.2 Influence of Chemical Processes on Dissolved Oxygen	298	(2)
13.7.3 Measurement of the Oxygen-Reducing Capacity of a Wastewater: The BOD Test	300	(1)
13.7.4 Kinetics of BOD Reduction	300	(1)
13.7.5 The Dissolved Oxygen Sag	301	(3)
13.7.6 Seasonal Variations and Vertical Profiles of Dissolved Oxygen	304	(1)
13.7.7 Anaerobic Processes: Production of Poisonous Gases from Animal and Vegetable Wastes	305	(1)
13.7.8 The Effects of Organic Wastes	305	(1)
13.8 Nutrient Enrichment and Eutrophication	306	(8)
13.8.1 Background	306	(1)
13.8.2 Nutrients and Plant Growth	307	(2)
13.8.3 Sources and Losses of Nutrients	309	(1)
13.8.4 Nutrient Transformations in a Water Body	310	(1)
13.8.5 Photosynthesis and Diurnal Variations in Dissolved Oxygen	310	(2)
13.8.6 Characteristics of Nutrient Enrichment and Trophic Status	312	(1)
13.8.7 The Blue-Green Algae (Cyanobacteria)	313	(1)
13.8.8 The Future	314	(1)
13.9 Key Points	314	(3)
References	317	(1)
Questions	317	(1)
Answers	318	(5)
Chapter 14 Soil Contamination	323	(22)
14.1 Introduction	323	(1)
14.2 Sources of Soil Contamination	323	(2)
14.3 Chemical Nature of Soil Contaminants	325	(1)
14.4 Important Environmental Properties of Soils	326	(4)
14.5 Important Environmental Properties of Soil Contaminants	330	(3)
14.6 Distribution of Soil Contaminants	333	(6)
14.6.1 The Soil-Water Partition Process	333	(3)
14.6.2 The Soil-Organism Process	336	(3)
14.7 Ecological and Health Effects of Soil Contamination	339	(1)
14.8 Key Points	340	(2)
References	342	(1)
Questions	342	(1)
Answers	343	(2)
Chapter 15 Distribution of Chemicals in the Environment	345	(20)
15.1 Introduction	345	(1)
15.2 Two-Phase Partition Processes in the Environment	345	(6)
15.3 The Fugacity Concept	351	(2)
15.4 Fugacity and Chemical Distribution	353	(2)
15.5 The Fugacity Capacity Factors (Z Values)	355	(2)
15.6 Chemical Distribution in a Model Environment	357	(3)
15.7 Key Points	360	(2)
References	362	(1)
Questions	362	(1)
Answers	363	(2)
Chapter 16 Genotoxicity: The Action of Environmental Chemicals on Genetic Material	365	(24)
16.1 Introduction	365	(1)
16.2 The Genetic Code	366	(5)
16.3 Teratogens and Teratogenesis	371	(3)
16.3.1 Mechanisms of Action	371	(2)
16.3.2 Examples of Teratogens	373	(1)
16.3.2.1 Alcohol (Ethanol)	373	(1)
16.3.2.2 Methyl Mercury	373	(1)
16.3.2.3 Rubella (German Measles)	374	(1)
16.3.2.4 Thalidomide	374	(1)
16.4 Mutagens and Mutagenesis	374	(4)
16.4.1 Types of Mutations	374	(2)
16.4.1.1 Point Mutations	375	(1)
16.4.1.2 Mutations	375	(1)
16.4.2 Expression of Mutations and DNA Repair	376	(2)
16.5 Carcinogens and Carcinogenesis	378	(6)
16.5.1 Types of Carcinogens	378	(3)
16.5.1.1 Genotoxic Carcinogens	378	(1)
16.5.1.2 Epigenetic Carcinogens	379	(2)
16.5.2 Tumors	381	(1)
16.5.3 Development of Cancer	382	(1)
16.5.4 Problems with Genotoxicity Tests	383	(1)
16.6 Key Points	384	(1)
References	385	(1)
Questions	385	(1)
Answers	386	(3)
PART V Management of Hazardous Chemicals
Chapter 17 Monitoring of Chemicals in the Environment	389	(24)
17.1 Introduction	389	(1)
17.2 Monitoring and Sampling the Environment	390	(4)
17.3 Techniques for Chemical Analysis	394	(5)
17.4 Quality Assurance/Quality Control (QA/QC)	399	(2)
17.4.1 Background	399	(1)
17.4.2 QA/QC Procedures	400	(1)
17.5 Reporting of Results	401	(1)
17.6 Key Points	402	(2)
References	404	(1)
Questions	404	(2)
Answers	406	(7)
Chapter 18 Human Health and Ecological Risk Assessment Due to Exposure to Chemicals	413	(28)
18.1 Introduction	413	(1)
18.2 The Risk Assessment: Process and Principles	414	(2)
18.3 Human Health Risk Assessment	416	(9)
18.3.1 Background	416	(1)
18.3.2 Exposure Assessment	417	(3)
18.3.3 Dose-Response Relationships	420	(4)
18.3.3.1 Data Available on Dose-Response Relationships	420	(3)
18.3.3.2 Safety Factors	423	(1)
18.3.4 Acceptable or Tolerable Daily Intake (or Reference Dose) for Human Populations	424	(1)
18.3.5 Risk Characterization	425	(1)
18.4 Ecological Risk Assessment and Ecotoxicology	425	(10)
18.4.1 Background	425	(1)
18.4.2 The Ecotoxicology Concept	425	(1)
18.4.3 Types of Toxicant Discharged to the Environment	426	(1)
18.4.4 Laboratory Testing for Environmental Effects	427	(2)
18.4.5 Effects on Ecosystems	429	(1)
18.4.6 The Ecological Risk Assessment Process	430	(5)
18.5 Key Points	435	(2)
References	437	(1)
Questions	437	(1)
Answers	438	(3)
Index	441