Basic Virology

by Wagner, Edward K.

• ISBN13: 9781405103466
• ISBN10: 1405103469
• Additional ISBN(s): 9780632042999
• Edition: 2nd
• Format: Paperback
• Copyright: 2003-09-01
• Publisher: John Wiley & Sons Inc
• More Book Details
• Purchase Benefits

Summary

Univ. of California, Irvine. Introductory textbook provides a solid foundation in virology and its relationship to modern biology. Focuses on the fundamentals and stresses the basic concepts of molecular biology and immunology. Provides updated material on HIV treatment, West Nile virus, smallpox, and bioterrorism. Previous edition: c1999. Softcover. DNLM: Virus Diseases--virology.

Author Biography

Edward Wagner is Professor of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry at the University of California, Irvine. He is also a Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science.

Table of Contents

Preface	xix
New to the second edition	xx
Text organization	xx
Specific features of this text designed to aid instructors and students in pursuing topics in greater depth	xxiii
Depth of coverage	xxiii
Sources for further study	xxiii
The Internet	xxiii
Chapter outlines	xxiv
Review material	xxiv
Glossary	xxiv
Acknowledgments	xxv
PART I VIROLOGY AND VIRAL DISEASE	1	(48)
Introduction -- The Impact of Viruses on Our View of Life	3	(8)
The effect of virus infections on the host organism and populations --- viral pathogenesis, virulence, and epidemiology	3	(2)
The interaction between viruses and their hosts	5	(1)
The history of virology	6	(1)
Examples of the impact of viral disease on human history	6	(1)
Examples of the evolutionary impact of the virus---host interaction	7	(1)
The origin of viruses	8	(1)
Viruses have a constructive as well as destructive impact on society	9	(1)
Viruses are not the smallest self-replicating pathogens	10	(1)
Questions for Chapter 1	10	(1)
An Outline of Virus Replication and Viral Pathogenesis	11	(10)
Virus replication in the cell	13	(1)
Pathogenesis of Viral Infection	13	(7)
Stages of infection	14	(1)
Initial stages of infection --- entry of the virus into the host	15	(1)
The incubation period and spread of virus through the host	15	(2)
Multiplication of virus to high levels --- occurrence of disease symptoms	17	(1)
The later stages of infection --- the immune response	18	(1)
The later stages of infection --- virus spread to the next individual	19	(1)
The later stages of infection --- fate of the host	19	(1)
Questions for Chapter 2	20	(1)
Virus Disease in Populations and Individual Animals	21	(15)
Some viruses with human reservoirs	21	(3)
Some viruses with vertebrate animal reservoirs	24	(1)
Viruses in Populations	24	(1)
Animal Models to Study Viral Pathogenesis	25	(10)
A mouse model for studying poxvirus infection and spread	27	(1)
Reovirus infection of mice --- the convenience of a virus with a fragmented genome for identifying genes involved in pathogenesis	28	(2)
Rabies: where is the virus during its long incubation period?	30	(2)
Herpes simplex virus latency	32	(1)
Murine models	33	(1)
Rabbit models	33	(1)
Guinea pig models	34	(1)
Can virus be spread across ``kingdoms''?	34	(1)
Questions for Chapter 3	35	(1)
Patterns of Some Viral Diseases of Humans	36	(13)
Some viral diseases associated with acute infection followed by virus clearing from the host	36	(1)
Colds and respiratory infections	37	(1)
Influenza	37	(1)
Variola	37	(1)
Infection of an ``accidental'' target tissue leading to permanent damage despite efficient clearing	37	(1)
Persistent viral infections	38	(1)
Herpesvirus infections and latency	38	(1)
Complications arising from persistent infections	39	(1)
Viral and subviral diseases with long incubation periods	39	(1)
Rabies	40	(1)
HIV --- AIDS	40	(1)
Prion diseases	40	(1)
Some Viral Infections Targeting Specific Organ Systems	40	(4)
Viral infections of nerve tissue	41	(1)
Examples of viral encephalitis with grave prognosis	41	(1)
Rabies	41	(1)
Herpes encephalitis	42	(1)
Viral encephalitis with favorable prognosis for recovery	42	(1)
Viral infections of the liver (hepatitis)	43	(1)
Hepatitis A	43	(1)
Hepatitis B	43	(1)
Hepatitis C	43	(1)
Hepatitis D	44	(1)
Hepatitis E	44	(1)
Questions for Chapter 4	44	(1)
Problems for Part I	45	(2)
Additional Reading for Part I	47	(2)
PART II BASIC PROPERTIES OF VIRUSES AND VIRUS---CELL INTERACTION	49	(68)
Virus Structure and Classification	51	(9)
Viral genomes	51	(1)
Viral capsids	52	(3)
Viral membrane envelopes	55	(1)
Classification Schemes	55	(4)
The Baltimore scheme of virus classification	57	(1)
Disease-based classification schemes for viruses	57	(2)
Questions for Chapter 5	59	(1)
The Beginning and End of the Virus Replication Cycle	60	(17)
Outline of the virus replication cycle	60	(1)
Animal virus entry into cells --- the role of the cellular receptor	61	(3)
Mechanisms of entry of nonenveloped viruses	64	(1)
Entry of enveloped viruses	64	(1)
Entry of plant virus into cells	65	(2)
The injection of bacteriophage DNA into Escherichia coli	67	(2)
Nonspecific methods of introducing viral genomes into cells	69	(1)
Late Events in Viral Infection: Capsid Assembly and Virion Release	69	(7)
Assembly of helical capsids	69	(2)
Assembly of icosahedral capsids	71	(4)
Generation of the virion envelope and egress of the enveloped virion	75	(1)
Questions for Chapter 6	76	(1)
Host Immune Response to Viral Infection: The Nature of the Vertebrate Immune Response	77	(19)
The immunological structure of a protein	78	(2)
Presentation of Viral Antigens to Immune Reactive Cells	80	(6)
Local versus systemic immunity	80	(2)
Role of the antigen-presenting cell in initiation of the immune response	82	(3)
Clonal selection of immune reactive lymphocytes	85	(1)
Immune memory	85	(1)
Complement-mediated cell lysis	85	(1)
Control and Dysfunction of Immunity	86	(4)
Specific viral responses to host immunity	88	(1)
Passive evasion of immunity --- antigenic drift	88	(1)
Passive evasion of immunity --- internal sanctuaries for infectious virus	88	(1)
Passive evasion of immunity --- immune tolerance	89	(1)
Active evasion of immunity --- immunosuppression	89	(1)
Active evasion of immunity --- blockage of MHC antigen presentation	90	(1)
Consequences of immune suppression on virus infections	90	(1)
Measurement of the Immune Reaction	90	(5)
Measurement of cell-mediated (T cell) immunity	90	(1)
Measurement of antiviral antibody	91	(1)
Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs)	91	(1)
Neutralization tests	91	(1)
Inhibition of hemagglutination	92	(1)
Complement fixation	93	(2)
Questions for Chapter 7	95	(1)
Strategies to Protect Against and Combat Viral Infection	96	(21)
Vaccination --- Induction of Immunity to Prevent Virus Infection	97	(5)
Antiviral vaccines	97	(1)
Smallpox and the history of vaccination	97	(1)
How a vaccine is produced	98	(1)
Live-virus vaccines	99	(1)
Killed-virus vaccines	100	(1)
Recombinant virus vaccines	100	(1)
Subunit vaccines	101	(1)
Future trends in vaccine development and design	101	(1)
Problems with vaccine production and use	102	(1)
Eukaryotic Cell-based Defenses Against Virus Replication	102	(4)
Interferon	102	(1)
Induction of interferon	103	(1)
The antiviral state	104	(1)
Measurement of interferon activity	104	(2)
Antiviral Drugs	106	(4)
Targeting antiviral drugs to specific features of the virus replication cycle	106	(1)
Acyclovir and the herpesviruses	107	(1)
Amantadine and influenza A viruses	108	(1)
Chemotherapeutic approaches for HIV	109	(1)
Multiple drug therapies to reduce or eliminate mutation to drug resistance	109	(1)
Other approaches	110	(1)
Bacterial Antiviral Systems --- Restriction Endonucleases	110	(1)
Questions for Chapter 8	111	(1)
Problems for Part II	112	(3)
Additional Reading for Part II	115	(2)
PART III WORKING WITH VIRUS	117	(112)
Visualization and Enumeration of Virus Particles	119	(8)
Using the electron microscope to study and count viruses	119	(3)
Counting (enumeration) of virions with the electron microscope	122	(1)
Atomic Force Microscopy --- a rapid and sensitive method for visualization of viruses and infected cells, potentially in real time	123	(2)
Indirect methods for ``counting'' virus particles	125	(1)
Questions for Chapter 9	125	(2)
Replicating and Measuring Biological Activity of Viruses	127	(17)
Cell culture techniques	127	(1)
Maintenance of bacterial cells	127	(1)
Plant cell cultures	128	(1)
Culture of animal and human cells	128	(1)
Maintenance of cells in culture	128	(1)
Types of cells	128	(2)
Loss of contact inhibition of growth and immortalization of primary cells	130	(1)
The Outcome of Virus Infection in Cells	131	(5)
Fate of the virus	131	(2)
Fate of the cell following virus infection	133	(1)
Cell-mediated maintenance of the intra- and intercellular environment	133	(1)
Virus-mediated cytopathology --- changes in the physical appearance of cells	133	(2)
Virus-mediated cytopathology --- changes in the biochemical properties of cells	135	(1)
Measurement of the Biological Activity of Viruses	136	(6)
Quantitative measure of infectious centers	136	(1)
Plaque assays	136	(1)
Generation of transformed cell foci	137	(1)
Use of virus titers to quantitatively control infection conditions	137	(1)
Examples of plaque assays	138	(1)
Statistical analysis of infection	139	(2)
Dilution endpoint methods	141	(1)
The relation between dilution endpoint and infectious units of virus	141	(1)
Questions for Chapter 10	142	(2)
Physical and Chemical Manipulation of the Structural Components of Viruses	144	(21)
Viral Structural Proteins	144	(7)
Isolation of structural proteins of the virus	145	(2)
Size fractionation of viral structural proteins	147	(1)
Determining the stoichiometry of capsid proteins	147	(1)
The poliovirus capsid --- a virion with equimolar capsid proteins	148	(1)
Analysis of viral capsids that do not contain equimolar numbers of proteins	149	(2)
Characterizing Viral Genomes	151	(12)
Sequence analysis of viral genomes	151	(4)
Measuring the size of viral genomes	155	(1)
Direct measure of DNA genome lengths in the electron microscope	156	(1)
Rate zonal sedimentation and gel electrophoresis for measuring viral genome size	156	(2)
Use of renaturation rates to measure nucleic acid size and complexity	158	(2)
The polymerase chain reaction --- detection and characterization of extremely small quantities of viral genomes or transcripts	160	(3)
Questions for Chapter 11	163	(2)
Characterization of Viral Products Expressed in the Infected Cell	165	(20)
Characterization of Viral Proteins in the infected Cell	165	(12)
Pulse labeling of viral proteins at different times following infection	165	(2)
Use of immune reagents for study of viral proteins	167	(1)
Working with antibodies	167	(1)
The structure of antibody molecules	167	(1)
Monoclonal antibodies	168	(2)
Detection of viral proteins using immunofluorescence	170	(2)
Related methods for detecting antibodies bound to antigens	172	(1)
Use of bacterial staphylococcus A and streptococcus G proteins to detect and isolate antibody-antigen complexes	173	(2)
Immunoaffinity chromatography	175	(2)
Detecting and Characterizing Viral Nucleic Acids in Infected Cells	177	(7)
Detecting the synthesis of viral genomes	177	(1)
Characterization of viral mRNA expressed during infection	178	(1)
In situ hybridization	179	(2)
Further characterization of specific viral mRNA molecules	181	(1)
Use of microarray technology for getting a complete picture of the events occurring in the infected cell	182	(2)
Questions for Chapter 12	184	(1)
Viruses Use Cellular Processes to Express Their Genetic Information	185	(22)
Replication of cellular DNA	186	(2)
Expression of mRNA	188	(1)
Eukaryotic transcription	188	(1)
The promoter and initiation of transcription	188	(3)
Posttranscriptional modification of precursor mRNA	191	(1)
Visualization and location of splices in eukaryotic transcripts	192	(4)
Prokaryotic transcription	196	(1)
Prokaryotic RNA polymerase	197	(1)
The prokaryotic promoter and initiation of transcription	197	(1)
Control of prokaryotic initiation of transcription	198	(1)
Termination of transcription	199	(1)
Virus-induced changes in transcription and posttranscriptional processing	199	(2)
The mechanism of protein synthesis	201	(1)
Eukaryotic translation	202	(2)
Prokaryotic translation	204	(1)
Virus-induced changes in translation	205	(1)
Questions for Chapter 13	205	(2)
The Molecular Genetics of Viruses	207	(22)
Viral genomes	208	(1)
Locating sites of restriction endonuclease cleavage on the viral genome --- restriction mapping	208	(2)
Cloning of fragments of viral genomes using bacterial plasmids	210	(4)
Genetic Manipulation of Viral Genomes	214	(5)
Mutations in genes and resulting changes to proteins	214	(2)
Analysis of mutations	216	(1)
Complementation	216	(1)
Recombination	216	(2)
Isolation of mutants	218	(1)
Selection	218	(1)
HSV thymidine kinase --- a portable selectable marker	218	(1)
Screening	219	(1)
Deliberate and Accidental Alterations in Viral Genomes as a Result of Laboratory Replication	219	(4)
Virulence and attenuation	219	(1)
Generation of recombinant viruses	219	(3)
Defective virus particles	222	(1)
Questions for Chapter 14	223	(1)
Problems for Part III	224	(3)
Additional Reading for Part III	227	(2)
PART IV REPLICATION PATTERNS OF SPECIFIC VIRUSES	229	(175)
Replication of Positive-sense RNA Viruses	231	(26)
RNA viruses --- general considerations	231	(1)
A general picture of RNA-directed RNA replication	232	(2)
Replication of Positive-sense RNA Viruses Whose Genomes Are Translated as the First Step in Gene Expression	234	(1)
Positive-sense RNA Viruses Encoding a Single Large Open Reading Frame	234	(8)
Picornavirus replication	234	(1)
The poliovirus genetic map and expression of poliovirus proteins	235	(2)
The poliovirus replication cycle	237	(2)
Picornavirus cytopathology and disease	239	(2)
Flavivirus replication	241	(1)
Positive-sense RNA Viruses Encoding More Than One Translational Reading Frame	242	(9)
Two viral mRNAs are produced in different amounts during togavirus infections	243	(1)
The viral genome	243	(1)
The virus replication cycle	244	(1)
Virus entry	244	(1)
Early gene expression	244	(1)
Viral genome replication and generation of 26s mRNA	244	(1)
Generation of structural proteins	244	(2)
Togavirus cytopathology and disease	246	(2)
A somewhat more complex scenario of multiple translational reading frames and subgenomic mRNA expression: coronavirus replication	248	(1)
Coronavirus replication	248	(3)
Cytopathology and disease caused by coronaviruses	251	(1)
Replication of Plant Viruses with RNA Genomes	251	(2)
Viruses with one genome segment	252	(1)
Viruses with two genome segments	252	(1)
Viruses with three genome segments	252	(1)
Replication of Bacteriophages with RNA Genomes	253	(2)
Regulated translation of bacteriophage mRNA	253	(2)
Questions for Chapter 15	255	(2)
Replication Strategies of RNA Viruses Requiring RNA-directed mRNA Transcription as the First Step in Viral Gene Expression	257	(29)
Replication of Negative-sense RNA Viruses with a Monopartite Genome	258	(9)
The replication of vesicular stomatitis virus --- a model for Mononegavirales	259	(1)
The vesicular stomatitis virus virion and genome	259	(1)
Generation, capping, and polyadenylation of mRNA	259	(1)
The generation of new negative-sense virion RNA	260	(3)
The mechanism of host shutoff by vesicular stomatitis virus	263	(1)
The cytopathology and diseases caused by rhabdoviruses	264	(1)
Paramyxoviruses	264	(1)
The pathogenesis of paramyxoviruses	264	(1)
Filoviruses and their pathogenesis	265	(1)
Bornaviruses	266	(1)
Influenza Viruses --- Negative-sense RNA Viruses with a Multipartite Genome	267	(5)
Involvement of the nucleus in flu virus replication	267	(1)
Generation of new flu nucleocapsids and maturation of the virus	268	(2)
Influenza A epidemics	270	(2)
Other Negative-sense RNA Viruses with Multipartite Genomes	272	(4)
Bunyaviruses	272	(1)
Virus structure and replication	272	(3)
Pathogenesis	275	(1)
Arenaviruses	275	(1)
Virus gene expression	275	(1)
Pathogenesis	275	(1)
Viruses with Double-stranded RNA Genomes	276	(3)
Reovirus structure	276	(1)
The reovirus replication cycle	276	(3)
Pathogenesis	279	(1)
Subviral Pathogens	279	(5)
Hepatitis delta virus	279	(2)
Viroids	281	(1)
Prions	282	(2)
Questions for Chapter 16	284	(2)
Replication Strategies of Small and Medium-sized DNA Viruses	286	(25)
DNA viruses express genetic information and replicate their genomes in similar, yet distinct, ways	286	(2)
Papovavirus Replication	288	(11)
Replication of SV40 virus --- the model polyomavirus	288	(3)
The SV40 genome and genetic map	291	(1)
The control region	291	(1)
The early transcription unit	291	(1)
The late transcription unit	292	(1)
The polyadenylation region	292	(1)
Productive infection by SV40	292	(1)
Virus attachment and entry	293	(1)
Early gene expression	293	(1)
The role of T antigen in viral DNA replication and the early/late transcription switch	293	(2)
Abortive infection of cells nonpermissive for SV40 replication	295	(1)
The replication of papillomaviruses	296	(2)
The HPV-16 genome	298	(1)
Virus replication and cytopathology	299	(1)
The Replication of Adenoviruses	299	(6)
Physical properties of adenovirus	301	(1)
Capsid structure	301	(1)
The adenovirus replication cycle	301	(1)
Early events	301	(1)
Adenovirus DNA replication	301	(2)
Late gene expression	303	(1)
VA transcription and cytopathology	303	(1)
Transformation of nonpermissive cells by adenovirus	303	(2)
Replication of Some Single-stranded DNA Viruses	305	(4)
Replication of parvoviruses	305	(1)
Dependovirus DNA integrates in a specific site in the host cell genome	305	(1)
Parvoviruses have potentially exploitable therapeutic applications	306	(1)
DNA viruses infecting vascular plants	307	(1)
Geminiviruses	307	(1)
The single-stranded DNA bacteriophage X174 packages its genes very compactly	307	(2)
Questions for Chapter 17	309	(2)
Replication of Some Nuclear-replicating Eukaryotic DNA Viruses with Large Genomes	311	(25)
Herpesvirus Replication and Latency	312	(21)
The herpesviruses as a group	312	(1)
General features	312	(1)
Genetic complexity of herpesviruses	312	(1)
Common features of herpesvirus replication in the host	313	(1)
The replication of HSV	313	(1)
The HSV virion	313	(1)
The viral genome	313	(6)
HSV productive infection	319	(1)
Initial steps in infection: virus entry	319	(1)
Immediate-early gene expression	320	(3)
Early gene expression	323	(1)
Genome replication and late gene expression	323	(1)
Virus assembly and release	323	(2)
Latent infections with herpesviruses	325	(1)
HSV latency and reactivation	326	(3)
HSV transcription during latency and reactivation	329	(1)
Specific HSV genes whose function may be to accommodate reactivation	329	(1)
EBV latent infection, a different set of problems and answers	330	(1)
Pathology of herpesvirus infections	331	(1)
Herpesviruses as infectious co-carcinogens	332	(1)
Baculovirus, an Insect Virus with Important Practical Uses in Molecular Biology	333	(1)
Virion structure	333	(1)
Viral gene expression and genome replication	333	(1)
Pathogenesis	334	(1)
Importance of baculoviruses in biotechnology	334	(1)
Questions for Chapter 18	334	(2)
Replication of Cytoplasmic DNA Viruses and ``Large'' Bacteriophages	336	(20)
Poxviruses --- DNA Viruses That Replicate in the Cytoplasm of Eukaryotic Cells	337	(5)
The pox virion is complex and contains virus-coded transcription enzymes	337	(1)
The poxvirus replication cycle	338	(1)
Early events	338	(2)
Intermediate stages of replication	340	(1)
Late events in the replication cycle	340	(1)
Pathogenesis and history of poxvirus infections	340	(1)
Is smallpox virus a potential biological terror weapon?	341	(1)
Replication of ``Large'' DNA-containing Bacteriophages	342	(9)
Components of large DNA-containing phage virions	342	(1)
Replication of phage T7	342	(1)
The genome	342	(1)
Phage-controlled transcription	342	(1)
The practical value of T7	343	(1)
T4 bacteriophage: the basic model for all DNA viruses	343	(1)
The T4 genome	343	(2)
Regulated gene expression during T4 replication	345	(1)
Capsid maturation and release	346	(1)
Replication of phage λ: a ``simple'' model for latency and reactivation	346	(2)
The phage λ genome	348	(1)
Phage λ gene expression immediately after infection	348	(2)
The action of cro: lytic growth	350	(1)
Modulating the activity of the N protein: priming the cell for lysogeny	350	(1)
Action of cI, cII, and cIII: establishment of lysogeny	350	(1)
Integration of λ DNA: generation of the prophage	350	(1)
Biochemistry of the decision between lytic and lysogenic infection in E. coli	350	(1)
Competition for binding by cro and cI at the operator OR	350	(1)
Factors affecting the lytic/lysogenic ``decision''	351	(1)
A Group of Algal Viruses Shares Features of Its Genome Structure with Poxviruses and Bacteriophages	351	(1)
Questions for Chapter 19	352	(4)
Retroviruses: Converting RNA to DNA	356	(21)
Retrovirus Families and Their Strategies of Replication	357	(18)
The molecular biology of retrovirus	358	(1)
Retrovirus structural proteins	358	(1)
The retrovirus genome	359	(1)
The R:U5:(PB):leader region	360	(1)
The gag, gag:prot:pol, and envgenes	360	(1)
The 3' end of the genome	360	(1)
Genetic maps of representative retroviruses	360	(1)
Oncornaviruses	360	(2)
Human T-cell leukemia virus (HTLV)	362	(1)
Lentiviruses such as human immunodeficiency virus	362	(1)
Replication of retroviruses: an outline of the replication process	362	(1)
Initiation of infection	362	(1)
Generation of cDNA	362	(1)
Migration of the cDNA (with integrase) into the nucleus	362	(2)
Expression of viral mRNA and RNA genomes	364	(1)
Capsid assembly and maturation	364	(1)
Action of reverse transcriptase and RNase H in synthesis of cDNA	364	(2)
Transcription and translation of viral mRNA	366	(1)
Capsid assembly and morphogenesis	366	(1)
Mechanisms of Retrovirus Transformation	366	(1)
Transformation through the action of a viral oncogene --- a subverted cellular growth control gene	367	(1)
Oncornavirus alteration of normal cellular transcriptional control of growth regulation	368	(1)
Oncornavirus transformation by growth stimulation of neighboring cells	369	(1)
Viruses and cancer --- a reprise	370	(1)
Destruction of the Immune System by HIV	371	(1)
Cellular Genetic Elements Related to Retroviruses	372	(2)
Retrotransposons	374	(1)
The relationship between transposable elements and viruses	375	(1)
Questions for Chapter 20	375	(2)
Hepadnaviruses: Variations on the Retrovirus Theme	377	(6)
The virion and the viral genome	377	(2)
The viral replication cycle	379	(1)
The pathogenesis of hepatitis B virus	379	(1)
A plant ``hepadnavirus'': cauliflower mosaic virus	380	(1)
Genome structure	380	(1)
Viral gene expression and genome replication	380	(1)
The evolutionary origin of hepadnaviruses	381	(1)
Questions for Chapter 21	382	(1)
Viruses and the Future -- Promises and Problems	383	(21)
Clouds on the horizon --- emerging disease	383	(2)
Sources and causes of emergent virus disease	385	(1)
The threat of bioterrorism	386	(1)
What are the prospects of using medical technology to eliminate specific viral and other infectious diseases?	387	(1)
Silver linings --- viruses as therapeutic agents	388	(1)
Viruses for gene delivery	388	(2)
Using viruses to destroy other viruses	390	(1)
Why study virology?	390	(1)
Questions for Chapter 22	391	(1)
Discussion and Study Questions for Part IV	392	(9)
Additional Reading for Part IV	401	(3)
APPENDIX Resource Center	404	(5)
Books of historical and basic value	404	(1)
Books on virology	405	(1)
Molecular biology and biochemistry texts	406	(1)
Detailed sources	406	(1)
Sources for experimental protocols	406	(1)
The Internet	407	(2)
Virology sites	407	(1)
Important websites for organizations and facilities of interest	408	(1)
Technical Glossary	409	(19)
Index	428