The Basics of Social Research

by Babbie, Earl R.

• ISBN13: 9780534519551
• ISBN10: 0534519555
• Edition: 2nd
• Format: Paperback
• Copyright: 2001-08-01
• Publisher: Cengage Learning

Table of Contents

Preface	xvi
Prologue	xxi
Part One AN INTRODUCTION TO INQUIRY	1	(77)
Human Inquiry and Science	2	(23)
An Opening Quandary	3	(1)
Introduction	3	(1)
Looking for Reality	4	(6)
Ordinary Human Inquiry	5	(1)
Tradition	5	(1)
Authority	6	(1)
Errors in Inquiry and Some Solutions	6	(1)
What's Really Real?	7	(3)
The Foundations of Social Science	10	(7)
Theory, Not Philosophy or Belief	10	(2)
Social Regularities	12	(1)
Aggregates, Not Individuals	12	(1)
A Variable Language	13	(4)
Some Dialectics of Social Research	17	(4)
Idiographic and Nomothetic Explanation	18	(1)
Inductive and Deductive Theory	19	(1)
Quantitative and Qualitative Data	20	(2)
Pure and Applied Research	22
A Quandary Revisited	21	(1)
Main Points	22	(1)
Key Terms	23	(1)
Review Questions	23	(1)
Additional Readings	23	(1)
Multimedia Resources	24	(1)
Paradigms, Theory, and Research	25	(28)
An Opening Quandary	26	(1)
Introduction	26	(1)
Some Social Science Paradigms	27	(9)
Macrotheory and Microtheory	28	(1)
Early Positivism	29	(1)
Conflict Paradigm	29	(1)
Symbolic Interactionism	30	(1)
Ethnomethodology	31	(1)
Structural Functionalism	31	(1)
Feminist Paradigms	32	(1)
Rational Objectivity Reconsidered	33	(3)
Two Logical Systems Revisited	36	(8)
The Traditional Model of Science	36	(2)
Deduction and Induction Compared	38	(6)
Deductive Theory Construction	44	(2)
Getting Started	44	(1)
Constructing Your Theory	44	(1)
An Example of Deductive Theory: Distributive Justice	44	(2)
Inductive Theory Construction	46	(2)
An Example of Inductive Theory: Why Do People Smoke Marijuana?	47	(1)
The Links between Theory and Research	48	(1)
The Importance of Theory in the ``Real World''	49	(1)
A Quandary Revisited	49	(1)
Main Points	50	(1)
Key Terms	51	(1)
Review Questions	51	(1)
Additional Readings	51	(1)
Multimedia Resources	52	(1)
The Ethics and Politics of Social Research	53	(25)
An Opening Quandary	54	(1)
Introduction	54	(1)
Ethical Issues in Social Research	55	(10)
Voluntary Participation	56	(1)
No Harm to the Participants	57	(1)
Anonymity and Confidentiality	58	(2)
Deception	60	(1)
Analysis and Reporting	61	(1)
Institutional Review Boards	62	(3)
Professional Codes of Ethics	65	(1)
Two Ethical Controversies	65	(3)
Trouble in the Tearoom	65	(2)
Observing Human Obedience	67	(1)
The Politics of Social Research	68	(5)
Objectivity and Ideology	69	(3)
Politics with a Little ``p''	72	(1)
Politics in Perspective	72	(1)
A Quandary Revisited	73	(1)
Main Points	74	(1)
Key Terms	74	(1)
Review Questions	74	(1)
Additional Readings	75	(1)
Multimedia Resources	76	(2)
Part Two THE STRUCTURING OF INQUIRY	78	(136)
Research Design	80	(33)
An Opening Quandary	80	(1)
Introduction	81	(2)
Three Purposes of Research	83	(2)
Exploration	83	(1)
Description	84	(1)
Explanation	85	(1)
The Logic of Nomothetic Explanation	85	(3)
Criteria for Nomothetic Causality	86	(1)
False Criteria for Nomothetic Causality	87	(1)
Necessary and Sufficient Causes	88	(1)
Units of Analysis	89	(7)
Individuals	90	(1)
Groups	91	(1)
Organizations	91	(3)
Social Artifacts	94	(1)
Units of Analysis in Review	94	(1)
Faulty Reasoning about Units of Analysis: The Ecological Fallacy and Reductionism	95	(1)
The Time Dimension	96	(5)
Cross-Sectional Studies	96	(1)
Longitudinal Studies	97	(2)
Approximating Longitudinal Studies	99	(1)
Examples of Research Strategies	100	(1)
How to Design a Research Project	101	(6)
Getting Started	103	(1)
Conceptualization	104	(1)
Choice of Research Method	104	(1)
Operationalization	104	(1)
Population and Sampling	105	(1)
Observations	105	(1)
Data Processing	105	(1)
Analysis	106	(1)
Application	106	(1)
Research Design in Review	106	(1)
The Research Proposal	107	(1)
Elements of a Research Proposal	107	(1)
A Quandary Revisited	108	(1)
Main Points	109	(1)
Key Terms	110	(1)
Review Questions	110	(1)
Additional Readings	111	(1)
Multimedia Resources	111	(1)
Answers to Units of Analysis Quiz	112	(1)
Conceptualization, Operationalization, and Measurement	113	(32)
An Opening Quandary	114	(1)
Introduction	114	(1)
Measuring Anything That Exists	115	(3)
Conceptions, Concepts, and Reality	115	(2)
Conceptions as Constructs	117	(1)
Conceptualization	118	(6)
Indicators and Dimensions	118	(1)
The Interchangeability of Indicators	119	(1)
Real, Nominal, and Operational Definitions	120	(1)
Creating Conceptual Order	121	(1)
An Example of Conceptualization: The Concept of Anomie	122	(2)
Definitions in Descriptive and Explanatory Studies	124	(2)
Operationalization Choices	126	(9)
Range of Variation	127	(1)
Variations between the Extremes	128	(1)
A Note on Dimensions	128	(1)
Defining Variables and Attributes	129	(1)
Levels of Measurement	129	(4)
Single or Multiple Indicators	133	(1)
Some Illustrations of Operationalization Choices	134	(1)
Operationalization Goes On and On	135	(1)
Criteria of Measurement Quality	135	(6)
Precision and Accuracy	136	(1)
Reliability	136	(3)
Validity	139	(2)
Who Decides What's Valid?	141	(1)
Tension between Reliability and Validity	141	(1)
A Quandary Revisited	141	(1)
Main Points	142	(1)
Key Terms	143	(1)
Review Questions	143	(1)
Additional Readings	143	(1)
Multimedia Resources	144	(1)
Indexes, Scales, and Typologies	145	(28)
An Opening Quandary	146	(1)
Introduction	146	(3)
Indexes versus Scales	147	(2)
Index Construction	149	(14)
Item Selection	149	(1)
Examination of Empirical Relationships	150	(6)
Index Scoring	156	(1)
Handling Missing Data	157	(2)
Index Validation	159	(3)
The Status of Women: An Illustration of Index Construction	162	(1)
Scale Construction	163	(6)
Bogardus Social Distance Scale	163	(1)
Thurstone Scales	164	(1)
Likert Scaling	164	(1)
Semantic Differential	165	(1)
Guttman Scaling	166	(3)
Typologies	169	(1)
A Quandary Revisited	169	(1)
Main Points	170	(1)
Key Terms	171	(1)
Review Questions	171	(1)
Additional Readings	171	(1)
Multimedia Resources	172	(1)
The Logic of Sampling	173	(41)
An Opening Quandary	174	(1)
Introduction	174	(2)
A Brief History of Sampling	176	(2)
President Alf Landon	176	(1)
President Thomas E. Dewey	177	(1)
Two Types of Sampling Methods	177	(1)
Nonprobability Sampling	178	(3)
Reliance on Avalable Subjects	178	(1)
Purposive or Judgmental Sampling	178	(1)
Snowball Sampling	179	(1)
Quota Sampling	179	(1)
Selecting Informants	180	(1)
The Theory and Logic of Probability Sampling	181	(12)
Concious and Unconscious Sampling Bias	182	(2)
Representativeness and Probability of Selection	184	(1)
Random Selection	185	(1)
Probability Theory, Sampling Distributions, and Estimates of Sample Error	185	(8)
Populations and Sampling Frames	193	(4)
Review of Populations and Sampling Frames	196	(1)
Types of Sampling Designs	197	(6)
Simple Random Sampling	197	(1)
Systematic Sampling	197	(3)
Stratified Sampling	200	(2)
Implicit Stratification in Systematic Sampling	202	(1)
Illustration: Sampling University Students	202	(1)
Multistage Cluster Sampling	203	(6)
Multistage Designs and Sampling Error	203	(2)
Stratification in Multistage Cluster Sampling	205	(1)
Probability Proportionate to Size (PPS) Sampling	205	(2)
Disproportionate Sampling and Weighting	207	(2)
Probability Sampling in Review	209	(1)
A Quandary Revisited	209	(1)
Main Points	210	(1)
Key Terms	211	(1)
Review Questions	211	(1)
Additional Readings	211	(1)
Multimedia Resources	211	(3)
Part Three MODES OF OBSERVATION	214	(152)
Experiments	216	(22)
An Opening Quandary	217	(1)
Introduction	217	(1)
Topics Appropriate to Experiments	218	(1)
The Classical Experiment	218	(3)
Independent and Dependent Variables	218	(1)
Pretesting and Posttesting	219	(1)
Experimental and Control Groups	219	(2)
The Double-Blind Experiment	221	(1)
Selecting Subjects	221	(3)
Probability Sampling	222	(1)
Randomization	222	(1)
Matching	223	(1)
Matching or Randomization?	224	(1)
Variations on Experimental Design	224	(6)
Preexperimental Research Designs	224	(1)
Validity Issues in Experimental Research	225	(5)
An Illustration of Experimentation	230	(3)
``Natural'' Experiments	233	(2)
Strengths and Weaknesses of the Experimental Method	235	(1)
A Quandary Revisited	235	(1)
Main Points	235	(1)
Key Terms	236	(1)
Review Questions	236	(1)
Additional Readings	236	(1)
Multimedia Resources	237	(1)
Survey Research	238	(41)
An Opening Quandary	239	(1)
Introduction	240	(1)
Topics Appropriate for Survey Research	240	(1)
Guidelines for Asking Questions	241	(6)
Choose Appropriate Question Forms	241	(1)
Make Items Clear	242	(1)
Avoid Double-Barreled Questions	243	(1)
Respondents Must Be Competent to Answer	243	(2)
Respondents Must Be Willing to Answer	245	(1)
Questions Should Be Relevant	245	(1)
Short Items Are Best	245	(1)
Avoid Negative Items	246	(1)
Avoid Biased Items and Terms	246	(1)
Questionnaire Construction	247	(6)
General Questionnaire Format	247	(1)
Formats for Respondents	248	(1)
Contingency Questions	248	(2)
Matrix Questions	250	(1)
Ordering Items in a Questionnaire	250	(2)
Questionnaire Instructions	252	(1)
Pretesting the Questionnaire	253	(1)
A Composite Illustration	253	(1)
Self-Administered Questionnaires	253	(8)
Mail Distribution and Return	257	(1)
Monitoring Returns	257	(1)
Follow-up Mailings	257	(2)
Acceptable Response Rates	259	(1)
A Case Study	260	(1)
Interview Surveys	261	(5)
The Role of the Survey Interviewer	261	(1)
General Guidelines for Survey Interviewing	262	(2)
Coordination and Control	264	(2)
Telephone Surveys	266	(2)
Computer-Assisted Telephone Interviewing (CATI)	267	(1)
New Technologies and Survey Research	268	(3)
Comparison of the Different Survey Methods	271	(1)
Strengths and Weaknesses of Survey Research	272	(1)
Secondary Analysis	273	(1)
A Quandary Revisited	274	(1)
Main Points	275	(1)
Key Terms	276	(1)
Review Questions	276	(1)
Additional Readings	276	(1)
Multimedia Resources	277	(2)
Qualitative Field Research	279	(31)
An Opening Quandary	280	(1)
Introduction	280	(1)
Topics Appropriate to Field Research	281	(3)
Special Considerations in Qualitative Field Research	284	(3)
The Various Roles of the Observer	284	(1)
Relations to Subjects	285	(2)
Some Qualitative Field Research Paradigms	287	(9)
Naturalism	288	(1)
Ethnomethodology	288	(2)
Grounded Theory	290	(1)
Case Studies and the Extended Case Method	291	(2)
Institutional Ethnography	293	(1)
Participatory Action Research	294	(2)
Conducting Qualitative Field Research	296	(8)
Preparing for the Field	296	(1)
Qualitative Interviewing	297	(3)
Focus Groups	300	(2)
Recording Observations	302	(2)
Strengths and Weaknesses of Qualitative Field Research	304	(3)
Validity	305	(1)
Reliability	306	(1)
Research Ethics in Qualitative Field Research	307
A Quandary Revisited	306	(1)
Main Points	307	(1)
Key Terms	308	(1)
Review Questions	308	(1)
Additional Readings	308	(1)
Multimedia Resources	309	(1)
Unobtrusive Research	310	(29)
An Opening Quandary	311	(1)
Introduction	311	(1)
Content Analysis	312	(11)
Topics Appropriate to Content Analysis	312	(1)
Sampling in Content Analysis	313	(4)
Coding in Content Analysis	317	(4)
An Illustration of Content Analysis	321	(1)
Strengths and Weaknesses of Content Analysis	322	(1)
Analyzing Existing Statistics	323	(6)
Durkheim's Study of Suicide	323	(2)
Units of Analysis	325	(1)
Problems of Validity	325	(1)
Problems of Reliability	325	(2)
Sources of Existing Statistics	327	(2)
Historical/Comparative Analysis	329	(7)
Examples of Historical/Comparative Analysis	329	(3)
Sources of Historical/Comparative Data	332	(2)
Analytical Techniques	334	(2)
A Quandary Revisited	336	(1)
Main Points	336	(1)
Key Terms	337	(1)
Review Questions	337	(1)
Additional Readings	337	(1)
Multimedia Resources	338	(1)
Evaluation Research	339	(27)
An Opening Quandary	340	(1)
Introduction	340	(2)
Topics Appropriate to Evaluation Research	342	(1)
Formulating the Problem: Issues of Measurement	343	(4)
Specifying Outcomes	344	(1)
Measuring Experimental Contexts	345	(1)
Specifying Interventions	345	(1)
Specifying the Population	345	(1)
New versus Existing Measures	346	(1)
Operationalizing Success/Failure	346	(1)
Types of Evaluation Research Designs	347	(6)
Experimental Designs	347	(1)
Quasi-Experimental Designs	348	(3)
Qualitative Evaluations	351	(2)
The Social Context	353	(8)
Logistical Problems	353	(2)
Some Ethical Issues	355	(2)
Use of Research Results	357	(4)
Social Indicators Research	361	(2)
The Death Penalty and Deterrence	361	(1)
Computer Simulation	362	(1)
A Quandary Revisited	363	(1)
Main Points	363	(1)
Key Terms	364	(1)
Review Questions	364	(1)
Additional Readings	364	(1)
Multimedia Resources	365	(1)
Part Four ANALYSIS OF DATA	366	(74)
Qualitative Data Analysis	368	(26)
An Opening Quandary	369	(1)
Introduction	369	(1)
Linking Theory and Analysis	369	(6)
Discovering Patterns	370	(1)
Grounded Theory Method	371	(1)
Semiotics	372	(2)
Conversation Analysis	374	(1)
Qualitative Data Processing	375	(6)
Coding	375	(4)
Memoing	379	(1)
Concept Mapping	380	(1)
Computer Programs for Qualitative Data	381	(9)
Leviticus as Seen through HyperResearch	382	(3)
Sandrine Zerbib: Using NVivo to Understand Women Film Directors	385	(5)
The Qualitative Analysis of Quantitative Data	390	(1)
A Quandary Revisited	390	(2)
Main Points	392	(1)
Key Terms	392	(1)
Review Questions	392	(1)
Additional Readings	392	(1)
Multimedia Resources	393	(1)
Quantitative Data Analysis	394	(46)
An Opening Quandary	395	(1)
Introduction	395	(1)
Quantification of Data	396	(4)
Developing Code Categories	397	(2)
Codebook Construction	399	(1)
Data Entry	400	(1)
Univariate Analysis	400	(6)
Distributions	400	(2)
Central Tendency	402	(3)
Dispersion	405	(1)
Continuous and Discrete Variables	406	(1)
Detail versus Manageability	406	(1)
Subgroup Comparisons	406	(4)
``Collapsing'' Response Categories	407	(1)
Handling ``Don't Knows''	408	(1)
Numerical Descriptions in Qualitative Research	409	(1)
Bivariate Analysis	410	(12)
Percentaging a Table	411	(3)
Constructing and Reading Bivariate Tables	414	(1)
Introduction to Multivariate Analysis	415	(2)
A Quandary Revisited	417	(1)
Main Points	418	(1)
Key Terms	419	(1)
Review Questions	419	(1)
Additional Readings	419	(1)
Multimedia Resources	420	(2)
Appendixes
A Using the Library	422	(6)
B The Reseach Report	428	(6)
C Random Numbers	434	(2)
D Distribution of Chi Square	436	(2)
E Normal Curve Areas	438	(1)
F Estimated Sampling Error	439	(1)
Glossary	440	(11)
Bibliography	451	(10)
Index	461