Preface | p. iii |
The School and the Learner | p. 1 |
Understanding the Need for Student-Focused Instruction | p. 3 |
Introduction | p. 3 |
Essential Questions | p. 4 |
The Middle School Learner | p. 4 |
Middle Schools and Junior High Schools | p. 5 |
Turning points | p. 7 |
Middle School Philosophy | p. 8 |
The Philosophy of Student-Focused Instruction | p. 11 |
Beliefs about Learners | p. 11 |
Beliefs about Power | p. 12 |
Promoting Academic Success: Have Schools Institutionalized Failure? | p. 15 |
Student Focused Instruction-More Success for More Students | p. 19 |
Traditional Instruction versus Student-Focused Instruction | p. 20 |
Implementing Student-Focused Instruction | p. 23 |
Summary | p. 24 |
Key Terms | p. 24 |
Application Activities | p. 24 |
Understanding Middle Level Learners-Physical and Intellectual Development | p. 27 |
Introduction | p. 27 |
Essential Questions | p. 28 |
Patterns of Physical Development during Puberty | p. 28 |
What Are the Characteristics of Physical Development during Puberty? | p. 31 |
What Are the Implications of Physical Development for Instruction? | p. 37 |
Patterns of Intellectual Development during Puberty | p. 39 |
What Are the Characteristics of Intellectual Development in Early Adolescents | p. 40 |
What Are the Implications of Intellectual Development for Instruction? | p. 44 |
Patterns of Diversity in Learning Preference | p. 46 |
Differences in Learning Style | p. 46 |
Students with Special Needs | p. 47 |
The Question of Attention Deficit Disorder among Middle School Students | p. 49 |
What Are the Implications of Individual Learning Styles for Instruction? | p. 51 |
Summary | p. 51 |
Key Terms | p. 52 |
Application Activities | p. 52 |
Understanding Middle Level Learners-Emotional and Social Development | p. 55 |
Introduction | p. 55 |
Essential Questions | p. 56 |
Patterns of Emotional and Social Development during Puberty | p. 56 |
Two Important Developmental Tasks | p. 56 |
Emotional Characteristics of Early Adolescents | p. 58 |
Social Characteristics of Early Adolescents | p. 59 |
The Development of Sexuality | p. 63 |
What Are the Implications of Emotional and Social Development for Instruction? | p. 65 |
Impact of Culture on the Process of Early Adolescent Development | p. 67 |
Social Forces That Make Adolescence More Challenging Today Than in Previous Generations | p. 68 |
Special Risks for Today's Early Adolescents | p. 73 |
Summary | p. 74 |
Key Terms | p. 74 |
Application Activities | p. 74 |
An Environment that Supports Academic Achievement | p. 77 |
Introduction | p. 77 |
Essential Questions | p. 78 |
A Needs Based Environment | p. 78 |
Addressing Survival Needs-Creating a Safe Place to Learn | p. 78 |
Addressing Physical Needs-Respecting Brain Chemistry | p. 80 |
Addressing Needs for Power and Competence-Putting Students in Charge | p. 82 |
Love and Belonging-Developing Positive Relationships | p. 83 |
Membership-Bringing Diverse Groups Together | p. 89 |
Awareness and Sensitivity First | p. 90 |
Classroom as Community | p. 94 |
The Role of Community in Discipline and Moral Development | p. 100 |
Needs-Based Discipline in a Caring Classroom Community | p. 103 |
Summary | p. 108 |
Key Terms | p. 108 |
Application Activities | p. 109 |
The Strategies | p. 111 |
The Middle School Curriculum | p. 113 |
Introduction | p. 113 |
Essential Questions | p. 114 |
Forces Impacting Middle School Curriculum | p. 114 |
Curriculum Alignment with Standards | p. 115 |
Overemphasis on Standardized Test Scores | p. 115 |
Caring | p. 116 |
The Anti-Middle School Movement | p. 116 |
The Academic Rigor Debate | p. 117 |
Aims and Goals of a Student-Focused Curriculum at the Middle Level | p. 119 |
To Develop and Refine Intellectual Skills | p. 119 |
To Assist Students in Developing Identity | p. 121 |
To Assist Students in Defining Their Role in the Adult World | p. 123 |
The Nature of Middle Level Content | p. 126 |
The Five Curricula of the Middle School | p. 127 |
The Academic Curriculum | p. 127 |
The Expressive Curriculum | p. 130 |
The Wellness Curriculum | p. 133 |
The Co-Curriculum | p. 138 |
The Affective Curriculum | p. 142 |
Organizational Structures That Facilitate Curriculum Goals | p. 148 |
Interdisciplinary Teams | p. 148 |
Scheduling Options | p. 153 |
Summary | p. 157 |
Key Terms | p. 158 |
Application Activities | p. 158 |
Making Decisions about Curriculum | p. 161 |
Introduction | p. 161 |
Essential Questions | p. 162 |
Curriculum, Instruction, and Assessment | p. 162 |
Then and Now: The Evolution of Traditional Planning | p. 163 |
Limitations of Traditional Planning | p. 164 |
Results-Driven Planning | p. 164 |
The Role of Standards and Standardized Tests in Curriculum Planning | p. 166 |
Examples of General State Standards | p. 167 |
Examples of Content Standards | p. 167 |
Aligning Curriculum with Standards | p. 170 |
Tests That Attempt to Measure Standards | p. 171 |
Steps in Curriculum Planning | p. 175 |
Determining Long-Range Goals | p. 176 |
Organizing Curriculum Content around Big Ideas | p. 182 |
Organizing Big Ideas into Enduring Understandings | p. 186 |
Determining Essential Questions | p. 189 |
Designing Student Activities | p. 192 |
Summary | p. 194 |
Key Terms | p. 195 |
Application Activities | p. 195 |
Planning for Student-Focused Instruction | p. 199 |
Introduction | p. 200 |
Essential Questions | p. 200 |
Planning Units around Essential Questions | p. 201 |
Writing Objectives for Units and Lessons | p. 203 |
Levels of Cognitive Objectives | p. 204 |
Types of Content That Objectives Address | p. 205 |
How Will We Know If Students Are Reaching Our Objectives? | p. 207 |
How Do Teachers Design Learning Activities That Also Assess Learning? | p. 207 |
What Learning Principles Are Important When Planning Student-Focused Learning Activities? | p. 212 |
Learning is Constructivist | p. 212 |
Students Need a Personal Relationship with the Content | p. 215 |
Learners Are Unique | p. 219 |
How Do Teachers Design Student-Focused Learning Activities? | p. 222 |
They Redirect the Time and Energy of Planning and Assessment | p. 222 |
They Think Creativity about Their Content | p. 223 |
They Involve Students in Planning | p. 226 |
Steps in Creating Student-Focused Learning Activities | p. 227 |
Structuring the Activity | p. 227 |
Determining a Method for Evaluation | p. 228 |
Assembling Resources or Reference Materials Necessary for the Student to Complete the Activity | p. 228 |
Setting Up Learning Stations | p. 228 |
Teaching the Skills Necessary to Complete the Task | p. 228 |
Monitoring the Students as They Work on the Task | p. 228 |
What Do Good Learning Activities Look Like? | p. 229 |
Ideal Characteristics of Learning Activities | p. 230 |
Project Templates | p. 233 |
Using Learning Activities to Differentiate Instruction | p. 236 |
Why Do Teachers Differentiate? | p. 236 |
How Do Teachers Differentiate Instruction? | p. 238 |
When Should Teachers Differentiate? | p. 238 |
Interdisciplinary Learning Activities | p. 239 |
Choosing Themes for Interdisciplinary Units | p. 239 |
Methods for Developing Interdisciplinary Themes | p. 240 |
Components of an Interdisciplinary Unit | p. 242 |
Sample Interdisciplinary Units | p. 242 |
Summary | p. 246 |
Key Terms | p. 247 |
Application Activities | p. 247 |
Selecting Teacher-Focused Strategies | p. 251 |
Introduction | p. 251 |
Essential Questions | p. 252 |
Organizing Principles for Selecting Instructional Strategies | p. 252 |
The Choice of Instructional Strategy Should Be Based on Learner Outcome | p. 253 |
Learner Outcomes Must Be Prioritized and Those Priorities Affect the Teacher's Choice of Instructional Strategy | p. 253 |
Selection of Strategies Must Be Balanced to Create a Variety of Learning Experiences | p. 253 |
Learning Experiences Should Be Engaging | p. 254 |
Direct Instruction | p. 254 |
Special Considerations When Using This Method The 12-Minute Rule | p. 255 |
Structure of a Teacher-Focused Direct Instruction Lesson | p. 257 |
Structure of a Student-Focused Direct Instruction Lesson | p. 257 |
The Issue of Student Voice | p. 260 |
Class Discussion Techniques | p. 267 |
Special Considerations | p. 268 |
Structure of a Discussion Lesson | p. 269 |
What Is the Role of the Teacher in a Discussion? | p. 269 |
Student and Teacher Questioning to Advance Lessons | p. 270 |
Types of Questions | p. 270 |
Creating a Positive Climate for Questioning | p. 271 |
The Importance of Wait Time | p. 272 |
Strategies for Improving Questioning | p. 273 |
Other Uses of Questions | p. 275 |
Bookwork/Paperwork | p. 275 |
Hints for Creating Visually Appealing Worksheets or Written Exercises | p. 277 |
Using Textbooks Wisely | p. 277 |
Using Writing as a Learning Strategy | p. 285 |
Journals | p. 286 |
Learning Logs | p. 287 |
Summary | p. 288 |
Key Terms | p. 288 |
Application Activities | p. 288 |
Selecting Student-Focused Instructional Strategies | p. 291 |
Introduction | p. 291 |
Essential Questions | p. 292 |
Review of Organizing Principles for Selecting Instructional Strategies | p. 292 |
Using Technology as a Student-Focused Strategy | p. 293 |
The Power of Technology | p. 293 |
Technology Tools | p. 294 |
Special Considerations for Using Technology | p. 298 |
Conceptual Techniques | p. 298 |
Concept Mapping | p. 298 |
Card Sort Activities | p. 299 |
Comparing and Contrasting Activities | p. 300 |
Cause and Effect Charts | p. 300 |
Interpretive Activities | p. 300 |
Structure of the Conceptual Lesson | p. 300 |
Special Considerations for the Conceptual Lesson | p. 302 |
Independent Work | p. 302 |
Special Considerations for Independent Work | p. 303 |
Learning Stations | p. 303 |
Special Considerations for Learning Stations | p. 305 |
Cooperative and Small Group Learning | p. 305 |
Organizing Students for Small Group Work | p. 310 |
Social Skills for Group Work | p. 310 |
Roles of Group Members | p. 311 |
Hints for Effective Group Work | p. 314 |
Evaluating Group Work | p. 314 |
Special Considerations for Cooperative Learning | p. 314 |
Inquiry Learning | p. 315 |
Structure of an Inquiry Lesson | p. 317 |
Special Considerations for Inquiry Learning | p. 318 |
Problem-Based Learning | p. 318 |
Special Considerations for Problem-Based Learning | p. 319 |
Games | p. 322 |
Special Considerations for Games | p. 322 |
Role-Plays | p. 322 |
Special Considerations for Role-Play | p. 325 |
Summary | p. 325 |
Key Terms | p. 326 |
Application Activities | p. 326 |
Student-Friendly Grading and Assessment | p. 329 |
Introduction | p. 330 |
Essential Questions | p. 330 |
How Teaching Practices Have Influenced Assessment Practices | p. 331 |
Sorting and Ranking versus Teaching and Learning Practices | p. 331 |
Assumptions Inherent in Traditional Approaches to Assessment | p. 333 |
All Students Learn in the Same Way and at the Same Speed | p. 333 |
Grades Are Essential to Learning | p. 333 |
Grades Motivate Learners | p. 334 |
Grades Are Necessary for Control | p. 335 |
Good Teachers Give Bad Grades | p. 336 |
Moving Toward a Teaching and Learning Focus | p. 337 |
Reexamining Traditional Practices | p. 339 |
Letter Grades | p. 339 |
Competitive Grading and Grading on the Curve | p. 339 |
Moment in Time Grading | p. 339 |
Averaging | p. 340 |
Rethinking the Practice of Homework | p. 341 |
Historical Attitudes about Homework | p. 342 |
The Big Picture of Homework Research | p. 343 |
Does Homework Teach Responsibility? | p. 344 |
The Conflict of Homework and Developmental Needs of Early Adolescents | p. 345 |
Does Homework Unfairly Punish Some Students? | p. 346 |
Grading of Homework | p. 346 |
What to Grade, How to Grade | p. 347 |
Weighting of Grades | p. 349 |
Organizing for Student Success | p. 349 |
A Fairer Test | p. 351 |
Formative Feedback | p. 353 |
The Mastery Option | p. 354 |
Designing Performance-Based Assessments | p. 355 |
Designing Rubrics for Performance Assessments | p. 355 |
Making Students Accountable for Grades | p. 363 |
Portfolios | p. 366 |
Weekly Averaging/Frequent Grade Checks | p. 368 |
Communicating with Parents about Grades | p. 370 |
Summary | p. 370 |
Key Terms | p. 371 |
Application Activities | p. 372 |
Becoming a Student-Focused Teacher | p. 375 |
Introduction | p. 375 |
Essential Questions | p. 376 |
The Role of Beliefs and Attitudes in Successful Student-Focused Teaching | p. 376 |
Why Reflect on Our Beliefs? | p. 377 |
Reflecting on Our School Experiences | p. 378 |
Clarifying Our Beliefs about Teaching and Learning | p. 381 |
Reflecting on Our Beliefs about Learners and Learning | p. 381 |
Reflecting on Our Beliefs about Teaching | p. 382 |
How Our Beliefs Influence Our Students | p. 385 |
Breaking the Vicious Circles of Negative Beliefs | p. 390 |
Challenging Our Fears about Student-Focused Instruction | p. 391 |
Fear of Change, of Trying Something New | p. 393 |
Upsetting the Status Quo | p. 393 |
Peer Pressure from Controlling Teachers | p. 393 |
Accountability for Standardized Test Scores | p. 394 |
The Time Crunch: I Don't Have Time to Teach This Way | p. 395 |
Out-of-Control Students | p. 395 |
Implementing Student-Focused Instruction | p. 396 |
Letting Go of Traditional Roles | p. 396 |
What It Takes-Practical Hints | p. 398 |
What It Takes Emotionally | p. 398 |
Summary | p. 399 |
Key Terms | p. 399 |
Application Activities | p. 400 |
Glossary | p. 401 |
References | p. 404 |
Photo Credits | p. 418 |
Index | p. 419 |
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