Biochemistry (with BiochemistryNOW™)

by Campbell, Mary K.; Farrell, Shawn O.

• ISBN13: 9780534405212
• ISBN10: 0534405215
• Edition: 5th
• Format: Hardcover
• Copyright: 2005-01-14
• Publisher: Brooks Cole

Summary

Campbell and Farrell's BIOCHEMISTRY, Fifth Edition continues to lead the way in currency, clarity, and innovation. This text has been revised to reflect the latest developments in biotechnology, genomics and proteins, while retaining its successful approach to connecting biochemistry to students' lives. Complete text/media integration through BiochemistryNow„·, a web-based tutorial resource, is also available with this edition.

Table of Contents

Biochemistry and the Organization of Cells	1	(33)
What Are the Basic Themes for This Text?	1	(1)
What Is the Chemical Nature of Important Biomolecules?	2	(3)
What Can Biochemistry Say about Possible Origins of Life?	5	(9)
The Earth and Its Age	5	(2)
Biomolecules	7	(1)
Biochemical Connections: Structure and Function of Biomolecules	8	(2)
Molecules to Cells	10	(4)
How Do Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes Differ in Levels of Organization?	14	(1)
What Are the Main Structural Features of Prokaryotic Cells?	15	(1)
What Are the Main Structural Features of Eukaryotic Cells?	16	(5)
Important Organelles	16	(3)
Other Organelles and Cellular Constituents	19	(2)
How Do We Classify Organisms: Five Kingdoms or Three Domains?	21	(3)
Biochemical Connections: Extremophiles: The Toast of the Biotechnology Industry	23	(1)
Is There Common Ground for All Cells?	24	(2)
How Do Cells Use Energy?	26	(1)
What Is the Connection between Energy and Change?	27	(1)
What Is the Criterion for Spontaneity in Biochemical Reactions?	28	(1)
What Is the Connection between Thermodynamics and Life?	28	(6)
Biochemical Connections: Entropy and Probability	29	(1)
Summary	30	(1)
Critical Questions to Review	30	(3)
Annotated Bibliography	33	(1)
Water: The Solvent for Biochemical Reactions	34	(24)
What Makes Water a Polar Molecule?	34	(4)
Solvent Properties of Water	35	(3)
What Is a Hydrogen Bond?	38	(4)
Biologically Important Hydrogen Bonds Other Than to Water Molecules	41	(1)
Biochemical Connections: The Importance of the Hydrogen Bond	42	(1)
What Are Acids and Bases?	42	(1)
What Is pH, and What Does It Have to Do with the Properties of Water?	43	(3)
Monitoring Acidity	44	(2)
What Are Titration Curves?	46	(2)
What Are Buffers, and Why Are They Important?	48	(10)
How We Make Buffers	52	(1)
Biochemical Connections: Buffer Selection	52	(1)
Buffer Systems of Physiological Importance	53	(1)
Biochemical Connections: Some Physiological Consequences of Blood Buffering	54	(1)
Summary	55	(1)
Critical Questions to Review	55	(2)
Annotated Bibliography	57	(1)
Amino Acids and Peptides	58	(22)
What Are Amino Acids, and What Is Their Three-Dimensional Structure?	58	(1)
What Are the Structures and Properties of the Individual Amino Acids?	59	(6)
Group 1---Amino Acids with Nonpolar Side Chains	59	(3)
Group 2---Amino Acids with Electrically Neutral Polar Side Chains	62	(1)
Group 3---Amino Acids with Carboxyl Groups in Their Side Chains	63	(1)
Group 4---Amino Acids with Basic Side Chains	63	(1)
Biochemical Connections: Amino Acids and Neurotransmitters	64	(1)
Uncommon Amino Acids	65	(1)
Do Amino Acids Have Specific Acid-Base Properties?	65	(3)
What Is the Peptide Bond?	68	(4)
Biochemical Connections: Amino Acid Functions Other Than in Peptides	70	(2)
Are Small Peptides Physiologically Active?	72	(8)
Biochemical Connections: Aspartame, the Sweet Peptide	73	(2)
Biochemical Connections: Phenylketonuria and Inborn Errors of Metabolism	75	(1)
Biochemical Connections: Peptide Hormones	76	(1)
Summary	77	(1)
Critical Questions to Review	77	(1)
Annotated Bibliography	78	(2)
The Three-Dimensional Structure of Proteins	80	(33)
How Does the Structure of Proteins Determine Their Function?	80	(1)
Levels of Structure in Proteins	80	(1)
What Is the Primary Structure of Proteins?	81	(1)
What Is the Secondary Structure of Proteins?	81	(11)
Biochemical Connections: Complete Proteins and Nutrition	82	(1)
Periodic Structures in Protein Backbones	83	(1)
The α-Helix	83	(2)
The β-Sheet	85	(1)
Irregularities in Regular Structures	85	(1)
Supersecondary Structures and Domains	86	(4)
The Collagen Triple Helix	90	(1)
Two Types of Protein Conformations: Fibrous and Globular	91	(1)
What Can We Say about the Thermodynamics of Protein Folding?	92	(3)
Hydrophobic Interactions: A Case Study in Thermodynamics	93	(2)
What Is the Tertiary Structure of Proteins?	95	(6)
Myoglobin: An Example of Protein Structure	97	(2)
Denaturation and Refolding	99	(2)
Can We Predict Protein Folding from Sequence?	101	(3)
Protein-Folding Chaperones	102	(1)
Biochemical Connections: Prions	103	(1)
What Is the Quaternary Structure of Proteins?	104	(9)
Hemoglobin	104	(1)
Conformational Changes That Accompany Hemoglobin Function	105	(5)
Summary	110	(1)
Critical Questions to Review	110	(2)
Annotated Bibliography	112	(1)
Protein Purification and Characterization Techniques	113	(18)
How Do We Extract Pure Proteins from Cells?	113	(3)
Isolation of Proteins from Cells	113	(3)
What Is Column Chromatography?	116	(5)
What Is Electrophoresis?	121	(1)
How Do We Determine the Primary Structure of a Protein?	122	(9)
Cleavage of the Protein into Peptides	124	(2)
Sequencing of Peptides: The Edman Method	126	(2)
Summary	128	(1)
Critical Questions to Review	128	(2)
Annotated Bibliography	130	(1)
The Behavior of Proteins: Enzymes	131	(25)
What Makes Enzymes Such Effective Biological Catalysts?	131	(1)
What Is the Difference between the Kinetic and the Thermodynamic Aspects of Reactions?	131	(3)
Biochemical Connections: Enzymes as Markers for Disease	133	(1)
How Can We Describe Enzyme Kinetics in Mathematical Terms?	134	(1)
How Do Substrates Bind to Enzymes?	135	(2)
What Are Some Examples of Enzyme-Catalyzed Reactions?	137	(2)
What Is the Michaelis--Menten Approach to Enzyme Kinetics?	139	(7)
Linearizing the Michaelis--Menten Equation	142	(2)
Significance of KM and Vmax	144	(2)
How Do Enzymatic Reactions Respond to Inhibitors?	146	(10)
Kinetics of Competitive Inhibition	146	(1)
Biochemical Connections: Practical Information from Kinetic Data	147	(2)
Kinetics of Noncompetitive Inhibition	149	(2)
Biochemical Connections: Enzyme Inhibition in the Treatment of AIDS	151	(1)
Summary	152	(1)
Critical Questions to Review	152	(2)
Annotated Bibliography	154	(2)
The Behavior of Proteins: Enzymes, Mechanisms, and Control	156	(28)
Does the Michaelis--Menten Model Describe the Behavior of Allosteric Enzymes?	156	(4)
Control Mechanisms That Affect Allosteric Enzymes	157	(3)
What Are the Models for the Behavior of Allosteric Enzymes?	160	(4)
The Concerted Model for Allosteric Behavior	160	(3)
The Sequential Model for Allosteric Behavior	163	(1)
How Does Phosphorylation of Specific Residues Regulate Enzyme Activity?	164	(2)
What Are Zymogens, and How Do They Control Enzyme Activity?	166	(1)
Some of the Processes Involved in Blood Clotting	167	(1)
How Do Active-Site Events of an Enzyme Affect the Reaction Mechanism?	167	(5)
Determining the Essential Amino Acid Residues	168	(1)
The Architecture of the Active Site	169	(1)
The Mechanism of Chymotrypsin Action	170	(2)
What Types of Chemical Reactions Are Involved in Enzyme Mechanisms?	172	(4)
Biochemical Connections: Enzymes Catalyze Familiar Reactions of Organic Chemistry	173	(3)
Biochemical Connections: Families of Enzymes: Proteases	176	(1)
What Is the Connection between the Active Site and Transition States?	176	(2)
What Are Coenzymes?	178	(6)
Biochemical Connections: Catalytic Antibodies against Cocaine	179	(2)
Summary	181	(1)
Critical Questions to Review	181	(2)
Annotated Bibliography	183	(1)
Lipids and Proteins Are Associated in Biological Membranes	184	(31)
What Is the Definition of a Lipid?	184	(1)
What Are the Chemical Natures of the Lipid Types?	184	(7)
Fatty Acids	184	(2)
Triacylglycerols	186	(1)
Phosphoacylglycerols (Phospholipids)	187	(2)
Waxes	189	(1)
Sphingolipids	189	(1)
Glycolipids	189	(1)
Steroids	189	(1)
Biochemical Connections: Myelin and Multiple Sclerosis	190	(1)
What Is the Nature of Biological Membranes?	191	(5)
Lipid Bilayers	192	(3)
Biochemical Connections: Butter Versus Margarine---Which Is Healthier?	195	(1)
What Are Some Common Types of Membrane Proteins?	196	(1)
What Is the Fluid-Mosaic Model of Membrane Structure?	197	(2)
Biochemical Connections: Membranes in Medicine	198	(1)
What Are Some of the Functions of Membranes?	199	(4)
Membrane Transport	199	(3)
Membrane Receptors	202	(1)
Which Are the Lipid-Soluble Vitamins, and What Are Their Functions?	203	(6)
Vitamin A	203	(2)
Vitamin D	205	(1)
Vitamin E	206	(1)
Biochemical Connections: The Chemistry of Vision	207	(1)
Vitamin K	208	(1)
What Are Prostaglandins and Leukotrienes, and What Do They Have to Do with Lipids?	209	(6)
Biochemical Connections: Omega-3 Fatty Acids and Platelets in Heart Disease	212	(1)
Summary	212	(1)
Critical Questions to Review	213	(1)
Annotated Bibliography	214	(1)
Nucleic Acids: How Structure Conveys Information	215	(25)
What Are the Levels of Structure in Nucleic Acids?	215	(1)
What Is the Covalent Structure of Polynucleotides?	216	(4)
Biochemical Connections: The DNA Family Tree	220	(1)
What Is the Structure of DNA?	220	(8)
Secondary Structure of DNA: The Double Helix	220	(2)
Conformational Variations in DNA	222	(3)
Tertiary Structure of DNA: Supercoiling	225	(1)
Biochemical Connections: Triple-Helical DNA: A Tool for Drug Design	226	(1)
Supercoiling in Prokaryotic DNA	226	(2)
Supercoiling in Eukaryotic DNA	228	(1)
How Does the Denaturation of DNA Take Place?	228	(3)
Biochemical Connections: The Human Genome Project: Prospects and Possibilities	230	(1)
What Are the Principal Kinds of RNA and Their Structures?	231	(9)
Transfer RNA	233	(1)
Ribosomal RNA	234	(2)
Messenger RNA	236	(1)
Small Nuclear RNA	236	(1)
RNA Interference	237	(1)
Summary	237	(1)
Critical Questions to Review	237	(2)
Annotated Bibliography	239	(1)
Biosynthesis of Nucleic Acids: Replication	240	(24)
What Is the Flow of Genetic Information in the Cell?	240	(1)
What Are the General Considerations in the Replication of DNA?	241	(3)
Semiconservative Replication	242	(1)
Bidirectional Replication	243	(1)
How Does the DNA Polymerase Reaction Take Place?	244	(4)
One Strand of DNA Is Synthesized Semidiscontinuously	244	(1)
DNA Polymerase from E. coli	244	(4)
Which Proteins Are Required for DNA Replication?	248	(2)
Unwinding the Double Helix	248	(1)
The Primase Reaction	248	(1)
Synthesis and Linking of New DNA Strands	249	(1)
How Do Proofreading and Repair Take Place?	250	(5)
Biochemical Connections: Why Does DNA Contain Thymine and Not Uracil?	251	(4)
Biochemical Connections: The SOS Response in E. coli	255	(1)
How Is DNA Replicated in Eukaryotes?	255	(9)
Cell-Cycle Control of Replication	256	(1)
Eukaryotic DNA Polymerases	256	(2)
Biochemical Connections: Telomerase and Cancer	258	(2)
The Eukaryotic Replication Fork	260	(1)
Summary	261	(1)
Critical Questions to Review	262	(1)
Annotated Bibliography	263	(1)
Transcription of the Genetic Code: The Biosynthesis of RNA	264	(37)
How Does Transcription Take Place in Prokaryotes?	264	(6)
RNA Polymerase in Escherichia coli	264	(2)
Promoter Structure	266	(1)
Chain Initiation	267	(1)
Chain Elongation	267	(1)
Chain Termination	268	(2)
How Is Transcription Regulated in Prokaryotes?	270	(8)
Alternative σ Factors	270	(1)
Enhancers	271	(1)
Operons	272	(3)
Transcription Attenuation	275	(3)
How Does Transcription Take Place in Eukaryotes?	278	(5)
Structure of RNA Polymerase II	278	(1)
Pol II Promoters	279	(1)
Initiation of Transcription	280	(3)
Elongation and Termination	283	(1)
How Is Transcription Regulated in Eukaryotes?	283	(5)
Biochemical Connections: TFIIH---Making the Most Out of the Genome	284	(1)
Enhancers and Silencers	285	(1)
Response Elements	285	(3)
Biochemical Connections: CREB---The Most Important Protein You Have Never Heard Of?	288	(1)
What Are Some Structural Motifs in DNA-Binding Proteins?	288	(3)
DNA-Binding Domains	288	(1)
Helix--Turn--Helix Motifs	288	(2)
Zinc Fingers	290	(1)
Basic-Region Leucine Zipper Motif	290	(1)
Transcription-Activation Domains	291	(1)
How Is RNA Modified after Transcription?	291	(6)
Transfer RNA and Ribosomal RNA	291	(2)
Messenger RNA	293	(1)
The Splicing Reaction: Lariats and Snurps	294	(2)
Biochemical Connections: Lupus: An Autoimmune Disease Involving RNA Processing	296	(1)
Alternative RNA Splicing	296	(1)
How Does RNA Act as an Enzyme?	297	(4)
Summary	298	(1)
Critical Questions to Review	298	(1)
Annotated Bibliography	299	(2)
Protein Synthesis: Translation of the Genetic Message	301	(29)
What Is the Overall Process of Translating the Genetic Message?	301	(1)
What Is the Genetic Code?	302	(5)
Codon--Anticodon Pairing and Wobble	304	(3)
What Is the Role of Aminoacyl-tRNA Synthetases in Amino Acid Activation?	307	(2)
How Does Translation Take Place in Prokaryotes?	309	(11)
Ribosomal Architecture	309	(1)
Chain Initiation	309	(2)
Chain Elongation	311	(4)
Chain Termination	315	(2)
Biochemical Connections: The 21st Amino Acid?	317	(1)
The Ribosome Is a Ribozyme	318	(1)
Polysomes	318	(2)
How Does Translation Take Place in Eukaryotes?	320	(3)
Chain Initiation	320	(1)
Chain Elongation	321	(1)
Chain Termination	322	(1)
Coupled Transcription and Translation in Eukaryotes?	323	(1)
How Does Posttranslational Modification of Proteins Take Place?	323	(2)
Biochemical Connections: Molecular Chaperones: Preventing Unsuitable Associations	324	(1)
How Are Proteins Degraded?	325	(5)
Biochemical Connections: How Do We Adapt to High Altitude?	326	(1)
Summary	327	(1)
Critical Questions to Review	328	(1)
Annotated Bibliography	329	(1)
Nucleic Acid Biotechnology Techniques	330	(42)
How Do We Purify and Detect Nucleic Acids?	330	(2)
Separation Techniques	330	(1)
Detection Methods	331	(1)
What Makes Restriction Endonucleases an Important Tool for DNA Research?	332	(2)
Many Restriction Endonucleases Produce ``Sticky Ends''	333	(1)
What Is Cloning?	334	(8)
Using ``Sticky Ends'' to Construct Recombinant DNA	334	(1)
Biochemical Connections: Restriction Endonucleases: ``Molecular Scissors''	335	(7)
What Is Genetic Engineering, and Why Do We Do It?	342	(7)
DNA Recombination Occurs in Nature	342	(1)
Biochemical Connections: Genetic Engineering in Agriculture	343	(1)
Bacteria as ``Protein Factories''	344	(1)
Protein Expression Vectors	345	(2)
Biochemical Connections: Human Proteins through Genetic Recombination Techniques	347	(1)
Genetic Engineering in Eukaryotes	347	(1)
Biochemical Connections: Fusion Proteins and Fast Purifications	348	(1)
What Are DNA Libraries?	349	(3)
Finding an Individual Clone in a DNA Library	351	(1)
What Is the Polymerase Chain Reaction?	352	(3)
Biochemical Connections: Forensic Uses of DNA Testing	354	(1)
What Is Site-Directed Mutagenesis?	355	(2)
What Is DNA Fingerprinting?	357	(2)
Restriction-Fragment Length Polymorphisms: A Powerful Method for Forensic Analysis	358	(1)
How Can We Study DNA-Protein Interactions?	359	(2)
What Are Some Methods for Studying Transcription?	361	(4)
Biochemical Connections: DNA Chips---Robotic Technology Meets Biochemistry	363	(1)
Biochemical Connections: RNA Interference---The Newest Way to Study Genes	364	(1)
How Do We Determine the Base Sequences of Nucleic Acids?	365	(1)
How Can We Use Bioinformatics to Study Genomics and Proteomics?	366	(6)
Summary	369	(1)
Critical Questions to Review	369	(2)
Annotated Bibliography	371	(1)
Hot Topics in Cell and Molecular Biology	372	(42)
What Are Viruses?	372	(7)
Virus Structure	373	(1)
Families of Viruses	373	(1)
Virus Life Cycles	374	(4)
Viral Attachment	378	(1)
Biochemical Connections: Influenza---The Virus That Won't Go Away	378	(1)
What Virus Causes Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS)?	379	(1)
What Is Unique about Retroviruses?	380	(1)
How Are Viruses Used in Gene Therapy?	381	(3)
How Does the Immune System Defend the Body?	384	(12)
Innate Immunity---The Front Lines of Defense	385	(2)
Acquired Immunity: Cellular Aspects	387	(1)
T-Cell Functions	387	(3)
T-Cell Memory	390	(1)
The Immune System: Molecular Aspects	391	(2)
Biochemical Connections: A Carbohydrate-Based Anticancer Vaccine	393	(1)
Distinguishing Self from Nonself	394	(2)
How Does Human Immunodeficiency Virus Cause AIDS?	396	(5)
HIV Confounds Our Immune Systems	398	(1)
The Search for a Vaccine	398	(2)
Antiviral Therapy	400	(1)
Antibodies Get a Second Chance	400	(1)
The Future of Antibody Research	401	(1)
Why Are Stem Cells Special?	401	(2)
History of Stem-Cell Research	401	(1)
Stem Cells Offer Hope	402	(1)
What Is the Biochemistry of Cancer?	403	(11)
The Mark of a Cancer Cell	403	(1)
What Causes Cancer?	404	(1)
Oncogenes	404	(2)
Tumor Suppressors	406	(1)
Viruses and Cancer	407	(1)
Biochemical Connections: If It Isn't One Thing, It's Another	407	(1)
Biochemical Connections: Viruses Helping Cure Cancer	408	(2)
Summary	410	(1)
Critical Questions to Review	411	(1)
Annotated Bibliography	412	(2)
The Importance of Energy Changes and Electron Transfer in Metabolism	414	(20)
What Are Standard States for Free-Energy Changes?	414	(1)
What Is a Modified Standard State for Biochemical Applications?	415	(2)
Biochemical Connections: Biochemical Thermodynamics	416	(1)
What Is Metabolism?	417	(1)
Biochemical Connections: Living Things Are Unique Thermodynamic Systems	418	(1)
How Are Oxidation and Reduction Involved in Metabolism?	418	(2)
How Are Coenzymes Used in Biologically Important Oxidation--Reduction Reactions?	420	(2)
How Are Production and Use of Energy Coupled?	422	(5)
How Is Coenzyme A Involved in Activation of Metabolic Pathways?	427	(7)
Summary	430	(1)
Critical Questions to Review	431	(2)
Annotated Bibliography	433	(1)
Carbohydrates	434	(29)
What Are the Structures and the Stereochemistry of Monosaccharides?	434	(6)
Cyclic Structures: Anomers	437	(3)
How Do Monosaccharides React?	440	(8)
Oxidation--Reduction Reactions	440	(2)
Esterification Reactions	442	(1)
Biochemical Connections: Vitamin C Is Related to Sugars	443	(1)
The Formation of Glycosides	443	(3)
Other Derivatives of Sugars	446	(1)
Biochemical Connections: Glycosides, Fruits, and Flowers	447	(1)
What Are Some Important Oligosaccharides?	448	(1)
What Are the Structures and Functions of Polysaccharides?	449	(9)
Biochemical Connections: Lactose Intolerance	450	(1)
Cellulose and Starch	451	(1)
The Forms of Starch	451	(2)
Glycogen	453	(1)
Chitin	454	(1)
Biochemical Connections: Dietary Fiber	454	(1)
The Role of Polysaccharides in the Structure of Cell Walls	455	(3)
Glycosaminoglycans	458	(1)
What Are Glycoproteins?	458	(5)
Biochemical Connections: Low-Carbohydrate Diets	459	(1)
Biochemical Connections: Glycoproteins and Blood Transfusions	459	(1)
Summary	460	(1)
Critical Questions to Review	460	(2)
Annotated Bibliography	462	(1)
Glycolysis	463	(24)
What Is the Overall Pathway in Glycolysis?	463	(4)
A Summary of the Reactions of Glycolysis	464	(2)
Biochemical Connections: Louis Pasteur	466	(1)
How Is the 6-Carbon Glucose Converted to the 3-Carbon Glyceraldehyde-3-Phosphate?	467	(5)
How Is Glyceraldehyde-3-Phosphate Converted to Pyruvate?	472	(7)
Control Points in the Glycolytic Pathway	478	(1)
How Is Pyruvate Metabolized Anaerobically?	479	(4)
The Conversion of Pyruvate to Lactate in Muscle	479	(2)
Alcoholic Fermentation	481	(1)
Biochemical Connections: Anaerobic Metabolism and Tooth Decay	481	(2)
Biochemical Connections: Fetal Alcohol Syndrome	483	(1)
How Much Energy Can Be Produced by Glycolysis?	483	(4)
Summary	484	(1)
Critical Questions to Review	485	(1)
Annotated Bibliography	486	(1)
Storage Mechanisms and Control in Carbohydrate Metabolism	487	(24)
How Is Glycogen Produced and Degraded?	487	(8)
Breakdown of Glycogen	487	(2)
Formation of Glycogen from Glucose	489	(2)
Control of Glycogen Metabolism: A Case Study in Control Mechanisms	491	(2)
Biochemical Connections: Glycogen Loading	493	(2)
How Does Gluconeogenesis Produce Glucose from Pyruvate?	495	(4)
Oxaloacetate Is an Intermediate in the Production of Phosphoenolpyruvate in Gluconeogenesis	495	(3)
The Role of Sugar Phosphates in Gluconeogenesis	498	(1)
How Is Carbohydrate Metabolism Controlled?	499	(5)
Control of Phosphofructokinase and Fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase	499	(4)
Control of Pyruvate Kinase	503	(1)
Control of Hexokinase	503	(1)
Why Is Glucose Sometimes Diverted through the Pentose Phosphate Pathway?	504	(7)
Oxidative Reactions of the Pentose Phosphate Pathway	504	(1)
Nonoxidative Reactions of the Pentose Phosphate Pathway	504	(2)
Control of the Pentose Phosphate Pathway	506	(2)
Biochemical Connections: The Pentose Phosphate Pathway and Hemolytic Anemia	508	(1)
Summary	509	(1)
Critical Questions to Review	509	(1)
Annotated Bibliography	510	(1)
The Citric Acid Cycle	511	(29)
What Role Does the Citric Acid Cycle Play in Metabolism?	511	(1)
What Is the Overall Pathway of the Citric Acid Cycle?	512	(3)
How Is Pyruvate Converted to Acetyl-CoA?	515	(3)
What Are the Individual Reactions of the Citric Acid Cycle?	518	(7)
Biochemical Connections: Plant Poisons and the Citric Acid Cycle	520	(5)
What Are the Energetics of the Citric Acid Cycle, and How Is It Controlled?	525	(3)
Control of Pyruvate Dehydrogenase	526	(1)
Control of the Citric Acid Cycle Proper	527	(1)
What Is the Glyoxylate Cycle?	528	(1)
What Role Does the Citric Acid Cycle Play in Catabolism?	529	(2)
What Role Does the Citric Acid Cycle Play in Anabolism?	531	(5)
Biochemical Connections: Anaplerotic Reactions	532	(1)
Lipid Anabolism	532	(2)
Anabolism of Amino Acids and Other Metabolites	534	(1)
Biochemical Connections: Acetyl-CoA	534	(2)
Why Isn't Oxygen Part of the Equation?	536	(4)
Biochemical Connections: Why Is It So Hard to Lose Weight?	536	(1)
Summary	537	(1)
Critical Questions to Review	537	(2)
Annotated Bibliography	539	(1)
Electron Transport and Oxidative Phosphorylation	540	(28)
What Role Does Electron Transport Play in Metabolism?	540	(2)
What Are the Reduction Potentials for the Electron Transport Chain?	542	(2)
How Are the Electron Transport Complexes Organized?	544	(8)
Cytochromes and Other Iron-Containing Proteins of Electron Transport	550	(2)
What Is the Connection between Electron Transport and Phosphorylation?	552	(2)
What Is the Mechanism of Coupling in Oxidative Phosphorylation?	554	(3)
Chemiosmotic Coupling	554	(3)
Conformational Aspects of Coupling	557	(1)
How Are Respiratory Inhibitors Used to Study Electron Transport?	557	(4)
Biochemical Connections: Brown Adipose Tissue: A Case of Useful Inefficiency	558	(3)
What Are Shuttle Mechanisms?	561	(1)
What Is the ATP Yield from Complete Oxidation of Glucose?	562	(6)
Biochemical Connections: Sports and Metabolism	563	(2)
Summary	565	(1)
Critical Questions to Review	565	(2)
Annotated Bibliography	567	(1)
Lipid Metabolism	568	(36)
How Are Lipids Involved in the Generation and Storage of Energy?	568	(1)
How Are Lipids Catabolized?	568	(5)
What Is the Energy Yield from the Oxidation of Fatty Acids?	573	(3)
How Are Unsaturated Fatty Acids and Odd-Carbon Fatty Acids Catabolized?	576	(1)
What Are Ketone Bodies?	577	(3)
Biochemical Connections: Ketone Bodies and Effective Weight Loss	579	(1)
How Are Fatty Acids Produced?	580	(6)
How Are Acylglycerols and Compound Lipids Produced?	586	(6)
Biochemical Connections: Acetyl-CoA Carboxylase---A New Target in the Fight against Obesity?	587	(1)
Triacylglycerols	587	(1)
Phosphoacylglycerols	587	(2)
Sphingolipids	589	(2)
Biochemical Connections: Tay-Sachs Disease	591	(1)
How Is Cholesterol Produced?	592	(12)
Cholesterol Is a Precursor of Other Steroids	597	(2)
The Role of Cholesterol in Heart Disease	599	(2)
Summary	601	(1)
Critical Questions to Review	602	(1)
Annotated Bibliography	603	(1)
Photosynthesis	604	(25)
Where Does Photosynthesis Take Place in the Cell?	604	(4)
Biochemical Connections: The Relationship between Wavelength and Energy of Light	608	(1)
How Are Photosystems I and II Involved in the Light Reactions of Photosynthesis?	608	(7)
Photosystem II: Water Is Split to Produce Oxygen	609	(3)
Photosystem I: Reduction of NADP+	612	(1)
Cyclic Electron Transport in Photosystem I	612	(1)
Structure of a Photosystem	613	(2)
How Does Photosynthesis Produce ATP?	615	(2)
Biochemical Connections: Some Herbicides Inhibit Photosynthesis	616	(1)
What Are the Evolutionary Implications of Photosynthesis with and without Oxygen?	617	(2)
How Do the Dark Reactions of Photosynthesis Fix CO2 into Glucose?	619	(4)
Production of Six-Carbon Sugars	621	(1)
Regeneration of Ribulose-1,5-Bisphosphate	621	(2)
Biochemical Connections: Chloroplast Genes	623	(1)
How Is CO2 Fixed in Tropical Plants?	623	(6)
Summary	626	(1)
Critical Questions to Review	626	(2)
Annotated Bibliography	628	(1)
The Metabolism of Nitrogen	629	(33)
What Processes Constitute Nitrogen Metabolism?	629	(2)
How Is Nitrogen Incorporated into Biologically Useful Compounds?	631	(2)
Biochemical Connections: Nitrogen Fertilizers	631	(2)
What Role Does Feedback Inhibition Play in Nitrogen Metabolism?	633	(1)
How Are Amino Acids Synthesized?	634	(9)
General Features	634	(1)
Transamination Reactions: The Role of Glutamate and Pyridoxal Phosphate	635	(3)
One-Carbon Transfers and the Serine Family	638	(5)
What Are the Essential Amino Acids?	643	(1)
How Are Amino Acids Catabolized?	643	(5)
Disposition of the Carbon Skeletons	643	(1)
Excretion of Excess Nitrogen	644	(1)
The Urea Cycle	644	(2)
Biochemical Connections: Water and the Disposal of Nitrogen Wastes	646	(2)
How Are Purines Synthesized?	648	(3)
Anabolism of Inosine Monophosphate	648	(1)
Biochemical Connections: Chemotherapy and Antibiotics---Taking Advantage of the Need for Folic Acid	649	(1)
The Conversion of IMP to AMP and GMP	649	(2)
Energy Requirements for Production of AMP and GMP	651	(1)
How Are Purines Catabolized?	651	(3)
Biochemical Connections: Lesch--Nyhan Syndrome	653	(1)
How Are Pyrimidines Synthesized and Catabolized?	654	(3)
The Anabolism of Pyrimidine Nucleotides	654	(2)
Pyrimidine Catabolism	656	(1)
How Are Ribonucleotides Converted to Deoxyribonucleotides?	657	(1)
How Is dUDP Converted to dTTP?	658	(4)
Summary	659	(1)
Critical Questions to Review	659	(2)
Annotated Bibliography	661	(1)
Integration of Metabolism: Cellular Signaling	662
How Are the Metabolic Pathways Connected?	662	(1)
How Can Biochemistry Help Us Understand Nutrition?	663	(7)
Required Nutrients	663	(1)
Biochemical Connections: Alcohol Consumption and Addiction	664	(3)
The Food Pyramid	667	(1)
Biochemical Connections: Iron: An Example of a Mineral Requirement	667	(3)
Obesity	670	(1)
What Are Hormones and Second Messengers?	670	(10)
Hormones	670	(4)
Second Messengers	674	(1)
Cyclic AMP and G Proteins	674	(3)
Calcium Ion as a Second Messenger	677	(2)
Receptor Tyrosine Kinases	679	(1)
Biochemical Connections: Small G Proteins and the Ras Family	680	(1)
How Are Hormones Involved in the Control of Metabolism?	680	(4)
Biochemical Connections: Insulin and Low-Carbohydrate Diets	682	(2)
What Are the Many Effects of Insulin?	684
Insulin Structure	684	(1)
Insulin Receptors	684	(1)
Insulin's Effect on Glucose Uptake	684	(1)
Insulin Affects Many Enzymes	684	(1)
Diabetes	685	(1)
Insulin and Sports	686	(1)
Biochemical Connections: A Workout a Day Keeps Diabetes Away?	686	(1)
Summary	687	(1)
Critical Questions to Review	687	(2)
Annotated Bibliography	689
Glossary	1	(1)
Answers to Questions	1	(1)
Index	1