Business Guide to the World Trading System

by Unknown

• ISBN13: 9780850926217
• ISBN10: 0850926211
• Edition: 2nd
• Format: Paperback
• Copyright: 1999-01-01
• Publisher: Commonwealth Secretariat

Summary

This guide is to explain the systems of the World Trade Organization (WTO) to ordinary business persons. It begins with an overview that gives a general picture of the WTO legal system and the benefits that the business community can derive from improved knowledge of that system. The following six parts of the guide look in more detail at, inter alia, the role of the WTO as a forum for negotiations and as an organization for settling trade disputes between countries, the rules applicable to government procurement and State trading, the rules of the General Agreement on Trade and Services, and the Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights.

Table of Contents

Preface	iii
Acknowledgements	v
Boxes	xx
Note	xxiii
Introduction	1	(2)
The Guide	1	(1)
References and up-to-date information	2	(1)
Overview	3	(32)
The WTO system and the evolving global economy	3	(4)
The evolving multilateral trading system	3	(1)
Establishment of GATT	4	(1)
The Uruguay Round of Trade Negotiations	4	(1)
The WTO system	4	(1)
WTO and the global economy	5	(2)
Main features of the WTO Agreements	7	(8)
Multilateral Agreements on Trade in Goods	7	(1)
Objective and principles	7	(1)
Four basic rules	7	(1)
Protection to domestic industry through tariffs	7	(1)
Binding of tariffs	7	(1)
Most-favoured-nation treatment	7	(1)
National treatment rule	8	(1)
Rules of general application	8	(1)
Other rules	8	(1)
Rules governing the use of subsidies	8	(1)
Measures which governments of importing countries can take if requested by domestic industry	9	(1)
Safeguard actions	10	(1)
Anti-dumping and countervailing duties	10	(1)
Trade-related investment measures	11	(1)
General Agreement on Trade in Services	11	(1)
Four modes of international trade in services	11	(1)
Main provisions of GATS	11	(1)
MFN and national treatment	12	(1)
Transparency requirements	12	(1)
Increasing participation of developing countries	12	(1)
Liberalization commitments	12	(1)
Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights	13	(1)
The nature of intellectual property	13	(1)
Background to the negotiations on TRIPS	13	(1)
Main provisions of the Agreement	13	(1)
Categorization of WTO member countries	13	(1)
Single undertaking rule	14	(1)
Provisions for the special and differential treatment of developing and least developed countries	14	(1)
Procedures for dispute settlement	14	(1)
Mechanism for trade policy review	14	(1)
Liberalization measures taken by countries as a result of commitments assumed in the Uruguay Round	15	(2)
Improvements in market access	15	(1)
The industrial sector	15	(1)
Reductions in tariffs	15	(1)
Agreement on Textiles and Clothing	15	(1)
Agreement on Agriculture	16	(1)
Estimates of income and trade gains	16	(1)
Need for caution in interpreting macroeconomic studies	16	(1)
Developments since the establishment of WTO	17	(3)
Trade problems of least developed countries	18	(1)
Negotiations for the further liberalization of trade	18	(1)
Built-in agenda for the commencement of new negotiations	19	(1)
Decisions at the Ministerial Conference	19	(1)
Launching new negotiations	19	(1)
Benefits to the business community of the WTO system	20	(15)
Benefits conferred on the business community	20	(1)
Benefits to exporters of goods and services	20	(1)
Security of access	20	(1)
Stability of access	21	(1)
Benefits to importers of raw materials and other inputs	21	(1)
Rights conferred on the business community	21	(1)
Rights of domestic producers and importers	21	(1)
Rights of exporting enterprises	22	(1)
Illustrative list of rights	22	(1)
Effective utilization of WTO dispute settlement procedures	22	(1)
Influencing the future course of negotiations	22	(1)
Taking advantage of liberalization measures	23	(1)
Summing up	23	(2)
Annex I: Illustrative list of benefits arising from the WTO system	25	(3)
Annex II: WTO Agreements: provisions on special and differential treatment of developing countries - An analytical summary	28	(7)
PART ONE THE WORLD TRADE ORGANIZATION: ITS ROLE AND FUNCTIONS	35	(18)
WTO: Forum for negotiations, dispute settlement and trade policy reviews	37	(16)
Summary	37	(1)
WTO: Its objectives, functions and structure	37	(3)
Objectives and mandate	37	(1)
Functions	37	(1)
Structure	38	(1)
Decision-making process	39	(1)
The WTO Secretariat	39	(1)
Membership	40	(1)
WTO as a forum for negotiations	40	(2)
Continuous negotiations	40	(1)
Built-in agenda for negotiations	40	(1)
Review of Agreements	40	(1)
Addition of new subjects to the WTO work programme	40	(1)
Possible launching of a new round of trade negotiations	41	(1)
WTO system for the settlement of disputes	42	(4)
Dispute Settlement Body	42	(1)
Importance of consultations and conciliation	42	(1)
Panels	42	(1)
Appellate Body	43	(1)
Consideration of reports by DSB	43	(1)
Implementation of the reports	43	(1)
Compliance	43	(1)
Provision of compensation	43	(1)
Authorization of retaliatory action	43	(1)
How the dispute settlement mechanism works in practice	44	(2)
Trade Policy Review Mechanism (TPRM)	46	(7)
Periodicity of reviews	47	(1)
WTO-related consultations	47	(1)
Mechanism for consultations between governments and the private sector	47	(1)
Influence of associations of industries	47	(2)
Effective utilization of the legal and trade information available in WTO	49	(1)
Summing up	49	(1)
Annex I WTO structure	50	(1)
Annex II WTO membership	51	(2)
PART TWO INTERNATIONAL RULES GOVERNING TRADE IN GOODS (GATT 1994 AND ITS ASSOCIATE AGREEMENTS)	53	(136)
Four main rules of GATT	55	(10)
Summary	55	(1)
First rule: protecting the domestic industry by tariffs only	55	(2)
Non-observation of the rule against quantitative restrictions	56	(1)
Agricultural sector	56	(1)
Trade in textiles and clothing	56	(1)
Developing countries	56	(1)
Reinforcement of the discipline against the use of quantitative restrictions	57	(1)
Tariffication in the agricultural sector	57	(1)
Phased removal of restrictions on textiles and clothing	57	(1)
Developing countries in balance-of-payments difficulties are urged to use price-based measures	57	(1)
Second rule: tariffs should be reduced and bound against further increases	57	(2)
Reductions in tariffs	57	(1)
Binding against further increases	57	(1)
Principle governing the exchange of concessions in negotiations	58	(1)
Greater contributions from developing countries in the Uruguay Round	59	(1)
Third rule: trade according to the most-favoured-nation clause	59	(4)
Exceptions to the MFN rule	60	(3)
Fourth rule: national treatment	63	(1)
Business implications	63	(2)
Valuation of goods for customs purposes	65	(7)
Summary	65	(1)
Types of customs duties	65	(1)
Rules of the Agreement on Customs Valuation	66	(4)
The main standard: transaction value	66	(2)
Five other standards	68	(1)
The transaction value of identical goods	68	(1)
The transaction value of similar goods	68	(1)
Deductive value	69	(1)
Computed value	69	(1)
Fall-back method	69	(1)
Developing countries and the Agreement	70	(1)
Business implications	70	(2)
Preshipment inspection	72	(10)
Summary	72	(1)
Objectives for using PSI services	73	(1)
Background to the negotiations on the PSI Agreement	73	(1)
Main provisions of the Agreement	74	(3)
Obligations of PSI-using countries	75	(1)
Guidelines for conducting price verification	75	(2)
Differing rules on the verification of prices in the Agreement on PSI and on the valuation of goods in the Agreement on Customs Valuation	77	(1)
The main differences in the provisions of the two Agreements	77	(1)
Practical implications of the differences	77	(1)
Obligations of exporting countries	78	(1)
Consideration of complaints and settlement of disputes	79	(1)
Review of the provisions of the Agreement	79	(2)
Recommendations adopted to clarify the rules of the Agreement	79	(2)
Future monitoring	81	(1)
Business implications	81	(1)
Mandatory and voluntary product standards, and sanitary and phytosanitary regulations	82	(39)
Summary	82	(1)
The role of standards	83	(1)
In general	83	(1)
In promoting trade	83	(1)
International rules governing standards	84	(1)
Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade	85	(2)
Definitions	85	(1)
Technical regulations and standards	85	(1)
Conformity assessment	85	(1)
Testing of products	86	(1)
Certification of products after inspection	86	(1)
Quality management systems	87	(1)
Accreditation procedures	87	(1)
General principles and rules of the Agreement on TBT	87	(3)
Encouragement of the use of international standards, guidelines and recommendations	87	(1)
Circumstances permitting deviations from international standards and guidelines	88	(1)
Specific rules	88	(1)
Technical regulations and standards	88	(1)
Conformity assessment procedures	89	(1)
Arrangements for the mutual recognition of conformity assessment procedures	90	(1)
Code of Good Practice for voluntary standardization	90	(1)
Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures	91	(4)
Definition of sanitary and phytosanitary regulations	91	(1)
Difference between technical regulations and SPS measures	91	(1)
Approach of the SPS Agreement	91	(2)
Main differences between the SPS and the TBT Agreements	93	(2)
Other provisions common to the SPS and TBT Agreements	95	(1)
Level of obligations	95	(1)
Special and differential treatment of developing countries	95	(1)
Enquiry points	96	(1)
Business implications and experience of the operation of the Agreements	96	(25)
Reviews of the Agreements	96	(1)
Participation in international standardization activities	96	(1)
Making full use of rights to comment on draft standards and regulations	97	(1)
Quality management systems: ISO 9000	97	(1)
Opportunities provided by the Agreements for settling differences through bilateral consultations	98	(2)
Mutual recognition agreements	100	(2)
Annex: National enquiry points	102	(19)
Import licensing procedures	121	(3)
Summary	121	(1)
Common rules	122	(1)
Automatic import licensing	122	(1)
Non-automatic import licensing	122	(1)
Business implications	123	(1)
Rules applicable to exports	124	(3)
Summary	124	(1)
Export incentives providing for the reimbursement of indirect taxes	124	(1)
Rule governing export control measures	125	(1)
Export taxes	125	(1)
Export restrictions	125	(1)
Business implications	126	(1)
Rules governing subsidies on industrial products	127	(7)
Summary	127	(1)
Definition of subsidies; aim of the Agreement of SCM	128	(4)
Prohibited subsidies (red subsidies)	128	(1)
Permissible subsidies	129	(1)
Permissible subsidies that are actionable (amber subsidies)	129	(2)
Permissible subsidies that are non-actionable (green subsidies)	131	(1)
Remedies available to affected industries and to their governments	132	(1)
Business implications	133	(1)
Safeguard measures to restrict imports in emergency situations	134	(6)
Summary	134	(1)
Circumventing GATT rules through VERs	135	(1)
Agreement on Safeguards	135	(3)
Commitment to abolish VERs	135	(1)
Serious injury standard	136	(1)
Rules governing investigations	136	(1)
Application of safeguard measures	136	(1)
Compensation for the loss of trade	137	(1)
Special and differential treatment of developing countries	137	(1)
Duration of safeguard measures	137	(1)
Business implications	138	(2)
Safeguard actions for economic development purposes: special flexibility available to developing countries	140	(2)
Summary	140	(1)
Conditions for the invocation of safeguard provisions	140	(1)
Business implications	141	(1)
Response to unfair trade practices: rules on the use of countervailing and anti-dumping duties	142	(13)
Summary	142	(1)
Concept of dumping as embodied in GATT law	143	(1)
Rules and procedures for levying countervailing and anti-dumping duties	144	(4)
Main criteria for the levy of duties	144	(1)
Injury to domestic industry	144	(1)
Causal link between dumped, subsidized imports and injury to the domestic industry	144	(1)
Cumulation of imports	145	(1)
Standing of petitioners	146	(1)
Procedural rules	146	(1)
Information to be provided in the application	146	(1)
Notification to governments	146	(1)
Right to give evidence	147	(1)
Provision of information by exporters and the best information rule	148	(1)
On-the-spot investigations	148	(1)
Methodological rules	148	(4)
Agreement on SCM	148	(1)
Agreement on ADP	148	(1)
Price comparison: general principles	148	(1)
Averaging prices	149	(1)
Currency conversion	149	(1)
Constructed value	149	(1)
De minimis rule	150	(1)
Lesser duty rule	151	(1)
Provisional measures	151	(1)
Price undertakings	151	(1)
Disclosure prior to final determination	151	(1)
Determination of the amounts of subsidy and dumping margins	152	(1)
Sunset clause	152	(1)
Business implications	152	(3)
Rules of origin	155	(5)
Summary	155	(1)
Purposes for which rules are applied to determine country of origin	155	(1)
Main principles on which current national rules are based	156	(1)
Problems posed by differences in the rules for determining origin	156	(1)
Agreement on Rules of Origin	156	(1)
Coverage and objectives	156	(1)
Rules applicable in the transition period	157	(1)
Rules applicable after the transition period	157	(1)
Present state of play in the technical work on harmonization	157	(2)
Preferential rules of origin	158	(1)
Business implications	159	(1)
Trade-related investment measures	160	(4)
Summary	160	(1)
What are TRIMs?	160	(2)
Agreement on Trade-Related Investment Measures	162	(1)
Business implications	162	(2)
Agreement on Textiles and Clothing	164	(7)
Summary	164	(1)
Integrating trade in textiles into GATT	165	(1)
Methodology for integration	165	(1)
Experience of implementation of the integration process	165	(1)
Accelerated enlargement of quotas	166	(1)
Implementation of the provisions	166	(1)
Integration of non-MFA restrictions	166	(1)
Transitional safeguard measures	167	(1)
Experience of the application of ATC provisions	167	(1)
Rules of origin	168	(1)
Increasing use of anti-dumping actions	169	(1)
Business implications	170	(1)
Preparing for increased competition	170	(1)
Agreement on Agriculture	171	(11)
Summary	171	(1)
Overview	171	(1)
Border measures	172	(2)
Tariffication	172	(1)
Current and minimum access commitments	173	(1)
Special safeguards	173	(1)
Percentage reductions in tariffs	174	(1)
Binding of tariffs	174	(1)
Flexibility for developing countries: ceiling bindings	174	(1)
Export subsidies and governmental support measures	174	(1)
Export subsidies	174	(1)
Rules applicable to industrial products	175	(1)
Rules applicable to agricultural products	175	(1)
Domestic support subsidies	175	(3)
Green box subsidies	175	(1)
Blue box subsidies	176	(1)
Amber subsidies	176	(1)
Domestic support	176	(2)
Peace clause	178	(1)
Net food-importing countries	178	(1)
Business implications and future negotiations	179	(3)
Annex: Table 1: Export subsidy reduction commitments	180	(1)
Table 2: Reductions in domestic support to agricultural producers	181	(1)
Results of market access negotiations	182	(7)
Summary	182	(1)
Uruguay Round of trade negotiations	183	(1)
Industrial products	183	(1)
Reduction in tariffs	183	(1)
Binding of tariffs	183	(1)
Removal of quantitative restrictions	183	(1)
Agricultural products	184	(1)
Post-Uruguay Round negotiations	184	(1)
Assessment of liberalization gains from the Uruguay Round	184	(2)
Income and trade gains: estimates and reality	185	(1)
Estimates	185	(1)
The reality	185	(1)
Business implications	186	(3)
Varying impact on exports from different countries	186	(1)
Marginalization of developing and least developed countries	186	(2)
Potential for expanding trade with developing countries	188	(1)
PART THREE INTERNATIONAL RULES GOVERNING TRADE IN SERVICES	189	(34)
General Agreement on Trade in Services	191	(32)
Summary	191	(1)
Modes in which the service trade takes place	192	(2)
Difference between goods and services	192	(1)
Four modes of international service transactions	192	(1)
Protection in the service sectors	193	(1)
The growing importance of international trade in services	193	(1)
General Agreement on Trade in Services	194	(3)
Objectives	194	(1)
Structure	194	(1)
Framework text	194	(1)
Scope and main obligation	194	(1)
General obligations	195	(1)
Transparency: establishment of enquiry and contact points	195	(1)
Mutual recognition of qualifications required for the supply of services	195	(1)
Rules governing monopolies, exclusive service suppliers and other business practices restraining competition	196	(1)
Other obligations of the framework text	196	(1)
Conditional obligations and other provisions	196	(1)
Other provisions	196	(1)
Annexes to the Agreement	196	(1)
Rules on liberalization of services	197	(4)
Principles governing the participation of developing countries	197	(1)
MFN treatment	198	(1)
National treatment principle	198	(1)
Type and nature of commitments	199	(1)
Nature of the obligations which commitments impose	200	(1)
Liberalization commitments under GATS	201	(7)
Schedules of commitments	201	(1)
Horizontal commitments	201	(2)
Sectoral commitments	203	(1)
Financial services	204	(1)
Telecommunications	205	(1)
Professional services: accountancy services	206	(1)
Construction and related engineering services	207	(1)
Health-related and social services	208	(1)
Management consultancy services	208	(1)
Business implications	208	(15)
Assessment of benefits	208	(1)
Benefits for service industries in developing countries	209	(1)
New opportunities for collaboration with foreign suppliers	209	(1)
Benefits of contact points	209	(1)
New export opportunities	209	(1)
The link of commitments with domestic legislation	210	(1)
Increased opportunities for natural persons to provide services	210	(1)
Importance of adopting a juridical personality	210	(1)
Opportunities for the expansion of trade among developing countries	211	(1)
Annex I: WTO classification of service sectors	212	(5)
Annex II: National enquiry and contact points	217	(6)
PART FOUR GOVERNMENT PROCUREMENT AND STATE TRADING	223	(12)
Government procurement	225	(7)
Summary	225	(1)
Historical background to the evolution of rules	226	(1)
Agreement on Government Procurement	226	(4)
Aim	226	(1)
Coverage	226	(1)
Substantive provisions	227	(1)
Operational provisions	227	(1)
Greater public scrutiny of award decisions	228	(1)
Challenge procedures	229	(1)
Special provisions for developing countries	229	(1)
Negotiations for improvements in the Agreement	230	(1)
Interim agreement on government procurement	230	(1)
Work on government procurement under the provisions of GATS	230	(1)
Business implications	231	(1)
State trading	232	(3)
Summary	232	(1)
Main obligations	232	(1)
To conduct business in accordance with commercial considerations	232	(1)
Transparency	233	(1)
Business implications	233	(2)
PART FIVE TRADE-RELATED ASPECTS OF INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY RIGHTS	235	(22)
Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights	237	(20)
Summary	237	(1)
Intellectual property rights and their implications for international trade	238	(2)
Implications of IPRs for trade	238	(1)
WIPO conventions on IPRs	239	(1)
Background to the Uruguay Round negotiations on IPRs	239	(1)
Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights	240	(11)
Structure	240	(1)
Basic principles and general obligations	241	(1)
Minimum standards, including duration of protection	241	(1)
Patents	241	(1)
Definition and coverage	241	(1)
Rights of patent holders	242	(1)
Compulsory licensing	243	(1)
Disclosure of information	243	(1)
Copyright and related rights	244	(1)
Rights comprised in copyright	244	(1)
Related rights	244	(1)
Provisions of the TRIPS Agreement	245	(1)
Trademarks	245	(1)
Purpose served by trademarks	246	(1)
International rules on the use of trademarks	246	(1)
Definition of `trademark'	246	(1)
Exclusive rights	246	(1)
Special requirements	246	(1)
Licensing and assignment of trademarks	246	(1)
Cancellation of trademarks	246	(1)
Industrial designs	247	(1)
Geographical indications	247	(1)
Other intellectual property rights	248	(1)
Duration of intellectual property rights	248	(1)
Restrictive practices	249	(1)
Enforcement provisions	249	(1)
Civil remedies	250	(1)
Criminal proceedings	250	(1)
Provisional measures	250	(1)
Prevention of release of infringing goods by customs authorities	250	(1)
Transitional periods	250	(1)
`Mail-box' obligations	251	(1)
Stand-still provision	251	(1)
Business implications	251	(6)
Challenges	252	(1)
Obligations to change IPR systems	252	(1)
Difficulties in using reverse engineering	252	(1)
Issues relating to `traditional knowledge'	252	(1)
The advantages	253	(1)
Encouraging creative and innovative work	253	(1)
Transfer of technology on commercial terms	254	(1)
Impact on the trade in counterfeit goods	254	(1)
Relevance to the export and import trade	254	(1)
Summing up	255	(2)
PART SIX SUBJECTS ADDED TO THE WTO WORK PROGRAMME FOR STUDY AND ANALYSIS	257	(62)
Trade and environment	259	(14)
Evolving global trends	259	(1)
WTO provisions	260	(1)
Trade-related issues	261	(8)
Environmental measures with significant effects on trade, and the provisions of WTO law	261	(1)
Use of process and production methods in environmental regulations	261	(2)
Packaging requirements	263	(1)
Objectives of packaging regulations	263	(1)
Types of requirements	263	(1)
Trade effects of packaging requirements	263	(2)
Legal provisions	265	(1)
Environmental labelling	265	(1)
Types of environmental labels	265	(1)
Eco-labelling systems	265	(1)
Trade effects of eco-labelling systems	266	(1)
GATT provisions on environmental labelling	267	(1)
Consumption and other taxes imposed for environmental purposes	267	(1)
GATT rules	267	(1)
The use of revenues raised by the application of internal taxes on imports	268	(1)
Trade provisions in multilateral environmental agreements	269	(1)
Environmental benefits of trade liberalization	270	(1)
Future work	271	(2)
Annex: Polluter-pays and user-pays principles	272	(1)
Trade and investment	273	(13)
Background: discussions in GATT/WTO on trade and investment	273	(1)
FDI: its importance and impact; existing agreements and WTO provisions	274	(7)
Growing importance of FDI	274	(1)
Origin and direction of FDI flows to developing countries	274	(1)
Origin	274	(1)
Direction	275	(1)
Forms of FDI	275	(1)
Beneficial impact of FDI on host countries: transfer of technology	275	(1)
FDI and anti-competitive practices	276	(1)
FDI and foreign portfolio equity investment	276	(1)
Government measures to promote investment	277	(1)
Relaxation of regulatory regimes	277	(1)
Grant of investment incentives	277	(1)
Imposition of performance requirements	277	(1)
Bilateral, regional and multilateral investment instruments	278	(1)
Bilateral investment treaties	278	(1)
Regional arrangements dealing with investment issues	278	(1)
Multilateral agreement on investment	278	(2)
WTO provisions	280	(1)
Agreement on Subsidies and Countervailing Measures	280	(1)
Agreement on Trade-Related Investment Measures	280	(1)
General Agreement on Trade in Services	280	(1)
Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights	281	(1)
Description of the main issues and points raised in the discussions in the WTO Working Group	281	(5)
Main issues raised	281	(1)
Implications of the relationship between trade and investment for development and growth	282	(1)
Economic relationship between trade and investment	282	(1)
The degree of correlation between trade and investment	282	(1)
The impact of investment policies and measures on trade	282	(2)
Stocktaking and analysis of existing bilateral, regional and international agreements	284	(1)
Questions relevant to assessing the advantages of a possible initiative in WTO to establish a set of multilateral rules on investment	285	(1)
Definition of investment	285	(1)
Development implications of possible multilateral rules on investment	285	(1)
Trade and competition policy	286	(14)
Competition policy issues in international trade	286	(4)
Defining competition policy	286	(1)
Reasons for including trade and competition in the WTO work programme	286	(1)
Forms of anti-competitive business practices	287	(1)
Horizontal restraints	287	(1)
Import cartels and related arrangements	287	(1)
Export cartels and related arrangements	288	(1)
International cartels	288	(1)
Vertical market restraint arrangements	288	(1)
Abuses of dominant position	289	(1)
Mergers	289	(1)
Main elements of competition law	289	(1)
Overview of the main issues under discussion in the WTO Working Group	290	(10)
Main issues under discussion	290	(1)
Relationship of trade and competition policy to development and economic growth	291	(1)
Impact of the anti-competitive practices of enterprises and associations on international trade	292	(1)
Practices affecting market access for imports	292	(1)
Practices affecting international markets where different countries were affected in largely the same way	292	(1)
Practices with a differential impact on international markets	293	(1)
Factors facilitating anti-competitive practices that affect trade	293	(1)
State monopolies and regulations	293	(1)
State monopolies and exclusive rights	293	(1)
Regulatory policies	294	(1)
Relationship between investment and competition policy	294	(1)
Relationship between the trade-related aspects of intellectual property rights and competition policy	295	(1)
Impact of trade policy on competition	295	(1)
Bilateral, regional and international agreements dealing with competition policy issues	296	(1)
Issues relating to the development of cooperation at the international level among competition authorities	297	(1)
Focus of the Group's future work	298	(2)
Transparency in government procurement practices	300	(7)
Agreement on Government Procurement	300	(1)
Coverage and obligations	300	(1)
Reasons for the reluctance of developing countries to accede to the Agreement	301	(1)
Working Group on Transparency in Government Procurement	301	(6)
Possible main elements of an agreement on transparency in government procurement	302	(1)
Elements for ensuring transparency before a contract is awarded	302	(1)
Scope and coverage	302	(1)
Coverage of entities	302	(1)
Coverage of products	302	(1)
Threshold values	302	(1)
Coverage of transactions	302	(1)
Procurement methods	302	(1)
Decisions on qualifications of suppliers	303	(1)
Publication of laws and procedures	303	(1)
Notice of invitation to tender	303	(1)
Information on tender opportunities	303	(1)
Publications	303	(1)
Information content	303	(1)
Information on preferences accorded to domestic suppliers	304	(1)
Language	304	(1)
Time limits	304	(1)
Elements for ensuring transparency after the procurement contract is awarded	304	(1)
Transparency of decisions on contract awards	304	(1)
Ex post information to be sent to unsuccessful bidders	304	(1)
Domestic review procedures	305	(1)
Application of WTO dispute settlement procedures	305	(1)
Technical cooperation, and special and differential treatment of developing countries	305	(1)
Ongoing work	305	(2)
Trade facilitation	307	(6)
Work by international organizations other than WTO	307	(1)
WTO law on trade facilitation	307	(2)
Defining trade facilitation	307	(2)
WTO Agreements: provisions on trade facilitation	309	(1)
Proposals calling for WTO involvement in trade facilitation	309	(3)
Reasons for the proposals	309	(1)
Improving the enforceability of the rules	310	(1)
Improving political willingness to abide by rules	311	(1)
Necessity for adopting international standards on electronic data transmission	311	(1)
Subject areas suggested for inclusion in a WTO work programme on trade facilitation	311	(1)
Work in progress	312	(1)
Electronic commerce	313	(6)
What is electronic commerce	313	(1)
Benefits of electronic commerce	313	(1)
Internet-based international trade	314	(1)
Internet commerce and developing countries	314	(1)
Problems and issues	315	(2)
Revenue implications of electronic commerce	315	(1)
Protection of intellectual property rights	315	(1)
Other legal issues	316	(1)
WTO work programme	317	(1)
Customs duties on electronic transactions	317	(1)
Summing up	317	(2)
Index	319