Canine and Feline Behavior for Veterinary Technicians and Nurses

by Martin, Debbie; Shaw, Julie

• ISBN13: 9781119765400
• ISBN10: 1119765404
• Edition: 2nd
• Format: Paperback
• Copyright: 2023-06-14
• Publisher: Wiley-Blackwell

Summary

Canine and Feline Behavior for Veterinary Technicians and Nurses

A complete and modern guide to the veterinary technician’s role in behavioral preventive services

This fully revised second edition of Canine and Feline Behavior for Veterinary Technicians and Nurses presents a comprehensive, up-to-date guide for veterinary technicians and nurses seeking to understand their patients on a deeper level, implement preventive behavior medicine, and assist veterinarians with behavioral interventions. The book provides a grounding in the behavioral, mental, and emotional needs of dogs and cats, and offers an invaluable daily reference for daily interactions with patients and clients.

Along with brand-new coverage of Fear Free® veterinary visits, the authors have included discussions of animal behavior and development, communication, behavior modification, problem prevention, and behavior solutions. A companion website offers more than 50 video tutorials, multiple choice questions, PowerPoint slides, and appendices. This Second Edition also provides:

• A thorough introduction to the role of veterinary technicians in animal behavior
• Comprehensive explorations of canine and feline behavior and development
• Discussion of the complexities and richness of the human-animal bond
• Details on implementing emotionally protective practices into the veterinary and husbandry care
• Practical strategies for learning and behavior modification, problem prevention, behavior solutions, and communication and connection amongst the animal behavior team

Canine and Feline Behavior for Veterinary Technicians and Nurses is an essential reference for veterinary technicians and nurses, and will also benefit veterinary technology and nursing students seeking comprehensive information about an increasingly relevant topic.

Author Biography

The editors

Debbie Martin, LVT, CPDT-KA, KPA CTP, VTS (Behavior), is the Animal Behavior Technician for Veterinary Behavior Consultations, LLC, and an owner of TEAM Education in Animal Behavior, LLC, in Spicewood, Texas, USA.

Julie Shaw, RVT, KPA CTP, VTS (Behavior),is the owner of Julie Shaw Consulting in Lafayette, Indiana, USA.

Table of Contents

Contributors, xiii

Preface, xvi

Acknowledgments, xvii

About the companion website, xviii

1 The Role of the Veterinary Technician in

Animal Behavior, 1

Kenneth M. Martin and Debbie Martin

Veterinarian’s roles and responsibilities, 2

Medical differentials to behavior disorders, 4

Behavioral dermatology, 4

Aggression, 5

Elimination disorders, 5

Chronic pain conditions

Behavior disorder versus training problem, 5

Qualified professionals to treat animal behaviour disorders, 6

Trainer’s roles and responsibilities, 7

The role of the veterinary technician in the veterinary behavior consultation, 12

Triaging the issues, 12

Medical and/or behavioral disorder (veterinary diagnosis required), 13

Prevention and training (no veterinary diagnosis required), 14

Prevention, 14

Lack of training or conditioned unwanted behaviors, 14

Prior to the consultation, 16

During the consultation, 18

After the consultation: follow-up care, 21

Summary of the roles of the veterinarian, veterinary technician, and dog trainer in veterinary behavior, 22

Home versus clinic behavior consultations, 22

Pros and cons of the home behavior consultation versus the clinic behavior consultation, 22

Veterinary-technician-driven behavior services, 24

Behavior modification appointments, 24

Puppy socialization classes, 25

Kitten classes, 26

Pet selection counseling, 26

New puppy/kitten appointments, 26

Life skills and basic manners training classes, 27

Head collar and harness fitting, 27

Behavior wellness visits, 27

Avian classes, 27

Staff and client seminars, 27

Fear Free®/ Low Stress Handling® hospital advocate,

Financial benefits, 28

Conclusion, 28

References, 28

2 Canine Behavior and Development, 30

Lisa Radosta

Canine sensory capacities, 30

Vision, 30

Hearing, 31

Olfaction, 31

Vomeronasal organ, 31

Taste, 31

Touch, 31

Canine communication, 31

Body language classifications, 31

Body postures, 32

Tail,

Head,

Ears,

Eyes,

Mouth,

      Clinical interpretation,

Play,

Conflict,

Aggression,

Fear, anxiety, and stress and/or conflict,

Auditory communication,

Olfactory communication,

Canine social structure, 37

Domestication and canine behavior, 37

Social organization of stray and/or free-ranging dogs, 38

The role of dominance in the social structure of the dog,

Social organization in dogs living in a human household, 38

Exploratory behavior, 39

Ingestive behavior, 39

Eliminative behavior, 40

Stimuli that affect elimination, 40

Sexual behavior, 40

Maternal behavior, 40

Parent–offspring behavior, 41

Care-giving behavior, 41

Care-soliciting behavior, 41

Puppy activity and vocalization, 41

Play behavior, 41

Canine behavioral development, 41

Complexity of early environment, 41

Effect of neonatal stress, 42

When is the best time to adopt a puppy?,

Sensitive periods of development and life stages, 42

Prenatal, 43

Neonatal, 43

Transitional, 44

Socialization, 44

Juvenile, 47

Adolescence, 48

Adult, 48

Senior, 48

Geriatric,

Problem prevention, 48

Complex early environment, 48

Socialization, 48

Conclusion, 49

References, 50

Further reading, 50

3 Feline Behavior and Development, 51

Debbie Martin

Feline sensory capacities, 52

Vision, 52

Hearing, 52

Olfaction, 53

Vomeronasal organ, 53

Taste, 53

Touch, 53

Feline communication, 53

Olfactory communication,

Auditory communication,

Visual communication, 53

Facial expressions, 56

Eyes,

Brow,

Ears,

Mouth,

Whiskers,

Feline grimace scale,

Tail positions, 54

Body postures and hair coat,

Play postures,

       Reading the entire cat, 58

Feline domestication, social structure, and behavior, 58

Domestication, 58

Social organization of domestic cats, 59

   Territorial behavior,

    The cat-human relationship,

Sexual behavior, 60

Maternal behavior, 61

Ingestive and predatory behavior, 61

Eliminative behavior, 61

    Urine marking, 62

Exploratory behavior and activity levels, 62

Grooming behavior, 62

Breed differences,

Feline behavioral development, 63

Developmental periods and life stages, 63

Prenatal, 64

Neonatal, 64

Transitional, 64

Socialization, 65

Juvenile, 65

Adolescence, 67

Adult, 67

Senior and geriatric, 67

Conclusion, 68

Additional resources,

References, 68

4 The Human–Animal Bond – a Brief Look at its Richness and Complexities, 70

Julie K. Shaw and Sarah Lahrman

The HAB past, present, and future, 71

The HAB during the COVID-19 pandemic,

Special bonds-Animal assisted interventions, 71

Animal-assisted therapy, 71

Assistance (service) dogs, 72

Difficult to understand relationships, 73

Motives for animal abuse, 73

Dogfighting, 74

Children – the other victims, 74

The “dogmen”, 74

Animal hoarders, 75

Defining healthy versus unhealthy bonds, 76

Defining and developing a healthy HAB, 76

Potential unhealthy pet relationships, 77

Identifying at-risk populations for unhealthy HAB, 77

Strengthening the HAB and preventing pet relinquishment, 78

Animals with behavioral disorders and the people who love them, 80

The stigma, 80

The impact on the pet owner, 80

Conclusion, 81

References, 81

5 Communication and Connecting the Animal Behavior Team, 83

Julie K. Shaw and Lindsey M. Fourez

A comparison between marriage and family therapist and the role of the animal behavior technician, 84

Communication, 85

Nonverbal communication, 85

Verbal communication, 86

Road blocks to verbal communication, 86

Active listening, 87

Connective communication techniques, 87

The four-habits communication model, 87

Validation, 87

Normalizing, 89

Guiding the conversation, 89

Reframing, 89

The dominance theory, 89

Empathy, 91

Teaching, 92

TAGteach®, 93

The Focus Funnel, 94

The Reverse Focus Funnel,

The Tag Point, 94

The tag, 95

The communication cycle, 95

Assessments, 97

Initial phone assessment, 97

Signalment and family orientation, 97

Identify high-risk factors, 97

Description and prioritized problem list, 97

Specific questions to ask pertaining to aggression, 98

Status of the HAB, 99

Assessment in the field, 99

Parts of a behavior history, 99

Follow-up reports, 99

Acquiring a behavior history and improving pet owner compliance, 100

Question styles, 100

Improving compliance, 101

Compliance enhancers, 101

Grief counseling, 102

The “normal” grief process, 102

Types of grievers, 103

Complex grief, 103

Disenfranchised grief, 103

Grieving the pet they thought they had, 105

Choosing to euthanize because of a behavioural disorder, 105

Denial/shock, 105

Anger, 105

Bargaining, 106

Rehoming versus euthanasia, 106

Guilt, 106

Anticipatory grief and acceptance, 107

Breaking the bond, 107

Determining the current level of attachment, 108

The decision, 109

After the loss, 109

Relief, 110

After care – additional support, 110

Conclusion, 111

References, 111

6 Learning and Behavior Modification, 113

Virginia L. Price

Genetics and learning, 113

Effect of domestication on learning, 119

Effects of nutrition on learning, 122

Early environment and learning, 123

Habituation and sensitization, 124

Operant conditioning, 126

Behavior modification using operant conditioning, 133

Classical conditioning, 135

Behavior modification using classical conditioning, 136

  Conditioned taste aversion, 138

   Behavior modification using taste aversion conditioning, 138

Social learning, 138

Behavior modification using social learning, 139

Conclusion, 140

References, 140

7 Problem Prevention, 145

Debbie Martin

Introduction, 146

Ideal characteristics for pet owners, 149

Canine management and prevention techniques, 151

Understanding dogs and their characteristics, 151

    Amoral,

    Constantly learning,

    Opportunistic,

    Curious,

    Avid Chewers,

    Complex olfactory communication system,

    Social,

    Predatory,

    It is NOT about dominance,   

Management of the learning history, 151

Routine, 152

   Canine environmental enrichment, 152

Toys, 152

Games, 153

Retrieving, 153

Biscuit hunt or find it, 153

Hide and seek, 153

Round robin, 153

Chase the toy, 154

Dog parks and dog daycares, 154

Canine prevention: effects of neutering, 154

Canine prevention: socialization, 155

Canine prevention: crate training, 155

Canine prevention: elimination training, 157

Litter/pad training puppies, 159

Canine prevention: independence training, 159

Canine prevention: handling and restraint, 160

Canine prevention: safety around the food bowl and relinquishing objects, 162

Feline management and prevention techniques, 164

      Understanding cats and their characteristics, 164

    Feline management recommendations, 164

    Feline environmental enrichment, 165

  Feeding, toys, and play, 165

  Vertical space and places to hide, 166

  Outdoor exposure, 166

Feline prevention: effects of neutering, 166

Feline prevention: socialization, 166

Feline prevention: litter box training, 167

Feline prevention: crate training, 167

Feline prevention: handling and restraint, 168

Prevention (canine and feline): introducing a new pet, 168

Introductions: dog to dog, 168

Introductions: cat to cat, 169

Introductions interspecies, 169

Prevention (canine and feline): children and pets, 170

Behavior solutions for normal species-specific behavior, 171

General behavior solutions model, 172

Problems with aversive training techniques and equipment, 173

Behavior solutions for typical canine behaviors, 174

   Mouthing and play biting, 174

   Chewing, 175

   Stealing objects, 176

   Jumping on people, 178

   Digging, 179

   Barking, 180

Behavior solutions for typical feline behaviors, 181

Play biting and scratching, 181

Destructive scratching, 182

Climbing on surfaces,

Prevention services, 182

 Pet selection counseling, 182

  Counseling sessions, 184

  Counseling forms, 184

  Household composition, 185

  Previous pets, 185

  Household logistics and dynamics, 185

  Anticipated responsibilities, 186

  Living arrangements, 186

  Financial considerations, 186

  Husbandry considerations, 186

  Management and training considerations, 186

  Adopting multiple pets at the same time, 186

  Personal preferences, 186

 Pet-selection reports, 187

  Finding a source for obtaining the pet, 187

Puppy socialization classes, 188

Logistics, 189

Location, 189

Instructor characteristics, 189

Participant characteristics, 191

Class style, 192

Disease prevention, 192

Puppy socialization class format, 192

Orientation, 192

Puppy play sessions, 192

Exploration and exposure, 194

Preventive exercises, 194

Puppy parenting tips, 195

Introduction to positive reinforcement training, 195

Kitten classes, 195

     Juvenile/Adolescent/Adult canine classes, 196

     Senior/geriatric canine classes, 198

     Fun visits and formal training sessions for veterinary experiences,

     Private in-home or in-clinic prevention/training appointments, 198

     Special prevention topic seminars or classes, 199

Integrating behavior wellness into the veterinary hospital, 199

   Puppy and kitten visits, 199

  Puppies and kittens displaying signs of fear,

  High-risk puppies, 200

  The adolescent behavior wellness examination, 201

  The adult behavior wellness examination, 202

  The senior and geriatric behavior wellness examination, 202

  Behavior wellness conclusion, 202

Conclusion, 202

Additional resources,

References, 202

8 Husbandry and Veterinary Care, 204

Debbie Martin and Rachel M. Lees

Introduction

General Core Concepts

   Assessing FAS

   Considerate Approach

   Touch Gradient

   Gentle Control

   Communication

Creating Pleasant Experiences Throughout the Veterinary Visit

   Home Preparation

   Scheduling the Veterinary Appointment

   Arrival at the Veterinary Hospital

   General Hospital Recommendations

   The Waiting Room/Lobby

   The Scale

   The Examination Room

   Treatment and Procedure Areas

   Housing Areas and Wards

   Moving Between Areas of the Hospital

   Return Home

   Gentle Control Techniques

     Distraction Techniques

     Touch than Reinforce Techniques

     Cooperative Care and Cooperative Care Training

        Stationing and Targeting Behaviors

        Predictor Cues

        Consent Behaviors

     Gentle Control Tools

     Gentle Control Summary

Creating a Plan for Veterinary Care

Prioritizing Veterinary Procedures

The Medical Treatment of FAS

   Indicators for the use of anxiolytics

   Preventive Medical Intervention for FAS Inducing Medical Procedures 

   Medical Intervention for FAS

   Pain Increases Fear, Anxiety, and Stress

   Fun Visits versus Formal Training for Veterinary Experiences

Conclusion

Additional Resources

References

9 Specific Behavior Modification Techniques and Practical Applications for Behavior

Disorders, 204

Debbie Martin

Common veterinary behavior disorder diagnosis and descriptions, 206

Aggression, 207

Conflict-induced aggression, 207

Possessive aggression, 209

Petting-induced aggression, 209

Disease-induced or pain-induced aggression, 210

Fear/defensive aggression, 210

Idiopathic aggression, 211

Inter-dog aggression (IDA), 211

Inter-cat aggression (ICA), 211

Status-induced aggression, 211

    Inter-dog aggression – household (IDA-H), 211

Alliance-induced aggression, 211

Status-induced aggression, 212

Learned aggression, 212

Maternal/hormonal induced aggression, 212

Play-induced aggression, 212

Redirected aggression, 212

Territorial aggression, 212

     Ingestive disorders, 213

   Coprophagia, 213

   Pica, 213

   Predatory behavior, 213

Elimination, 213

House soiling, 213

Urine marking, 213

Excitement urination, 214

Extreme appeasement urination, 214

Anxiety disorders, 214

Generalized anxiety, 214

Global fear, 214

Separation anxiety/distress, 214

Sound/thunderstorm phobia, 215

      Acute conflict behaviors, stereotypical behaviors, and compulsive disorders, 215

Acute conflict behaviors, 215

Stereotypical behaviors, 215

Compulsive disorder, 215

Other, 215

Cognitive dysfunction syndrome, 215

Hyperexcitability or hyperactive, 215

Conditioned unwanted behavior, 216

Common veterinarian-prescribed behavioral treatments, 216

Management, 216

Avoiding triggers, 217

Ignore attention-seeking behaviors, 217

Ignore at specific times, 218

Cue→response→reward interactions, 218

Change primary caregiver, 218

Environmental modifications, 218

Crate confinement or other confinement, 219

Crate (or other confinement) reconditioning, 219

Tethering, 220

Dietary changes, 220

Regular schedule, 220

Meal feed twice daily, 220

Mental stimulation, 220

Walking off property, 220

Aerobic exercise, 221

Clicker training, 221

        SEEKING system, 221

Training techniques, 221

Why punishment is not recommended in training or the application of behavior modification, 222

  Poor learning and cognition, 222

  Criteria for effective punishment are difficult to meet, 223

  The animal’s motivation strength is not too high, 223

  Always contingent on behavior and only associated with the behavior, 223

  Proper intensity, 223

  Timing, 223

  Alternative behavior choice, 223

      Punishment is counter-productive to treatment, 224

 Why the prevalence of punishment-based training and domination techniques persist, 224

Lure reward training, 226

Event marker (clicker) training, 226

Benefits of clicker training, both in training and in the application of behavior modification techniques, 226

Accelerated learning, 226

Improved retention time, 227

Hands-off and nonthreatening, 227

Marker training as a tool in behavior modification, 227

Strengthens the human–animal bond, 227

Assists in repairing the human–animal bond, 227

Builds confidence and creativity, 227

Other training, 228

Agility training, 228

Concept training, 228

Scent/odor detection training 229

Training tools, 230

Head halters, 231

Practical applications and uses, 231

Benefits, 231

Disadvantages and cautionary comments, 232

Basket muzzles/other muzzles, 232

Nylon muzzles, 232

Basket muzzles, 233

Cautions, 233

Body harnesses, 234

Front clip harnesses, 234

Considerations, 234

Standard harnesses, 234

Treats, 234

Practical applications and uses, 234

Considerations, 235

Treat bags, 235

Target sticks, 235

Calming cap, 236

Considerations, 236

Anxiety clothing, 236

Considerations, 237

Waist leashes, tethers, draglines, long lines, 237

Waist leashes, 237

Considerations, 237

Tethers, 237

Considerations, 237

Draglines, 237

Considerations, 238

Long lines, 238

Considerations, 238

Interactive toys or puzzles, 238

Pheromones, 238

      Considerations, 238

Aromatherapy,

      Considerations,

Acoustic/sound therapy,

       Considerations,

Reward markers, 238

Remote reward, 239

Considerations, 239

Double leashing, 239

Decoys, 240

Marker training techniques and skills, 240

Functional behavior analysis, 240

Functional assessment, 240

Foundation trainer skills, 241

Ability to observe behavior, 241

Species differences, 241

Choosing an appropriate event marker, 242

Conditioning the event marker and teaching contingency, 243

Determining a reinforcement hierarchy, 244

Manipulating motivations, 245

Reinforcement schedules, 245

Reinforcement delivery, 245

Treat delivery from the hand, 246

Tossing the treat, 246

Timing, 246

Capturing behaviors, 246

Shaping, 247

Creating a shaping plan, 248

Rate of reinforcement per minute, 248

Prompting, 249

Physical and environmental prompts, 250

Luring – handler prompts, 250

Targeting, 250

Fading prompts, 251

Cues, 251

Types of cues, 252

How and when to add the cue, 252

       Generalization, 252

Transferring cues, 252

“Poisoned” cues, 253

Stimulus control, 253

Fluency, 253

Behavior chains, 254

Behavior modification, 255

Using a marker in the application of behavior modification, 256

Generalization and behavior modification, 256

Classical counter-conditioning, 256

Practical application of CC, 257

Response substitution, 258

Practical application of RS, 259

Systematic desensitization, 260

Requirements for the systematic desensitization program, 260

Creation of a systematic desensitization plan, 260

     Behavior modification conclusion, 262

Drug desensitization, 262

Other, 262

Interruption of behavior, 262

Cease punishment, 262

Remote punishment, 262

Euthanasia or rehoming, 263

Grief counseling of client, 263

The practical applications of behavior modification, 263

Foundation behaviors, 263

Targeting, 263

Target to hand, 263

    Hand target recall, 263

Attention, 263

Game of opposites: “look” and “watch”, 264

Basic cued behaviors – sit, down, come, loose leash walking, 264

Place – go to a specific location, 265

Relaxation,

Applications of behavior modification, 265

    Behavior modification for unfamiliar people in the home,

    Introducing a muzzle or head halter,

    Behavior modification for exposure to a person, animal, or other stimulus on a walk,

    Behavior modification for thunderstorm/noise aversions,

    Relinquishment exercises, 270

        Food bowl exercises, 270

        Exchange DS exercise, 271

    Independence training, 272

        DS to departure cues and planned departures, 273

    Behavior modification for fear with veterinary or husbandry care,

Staying safe, 276

Safety techniques for the behavior consultation room, 276

Understand the animal’s threshold for reactivity,

Greeting a patient displaying signs of fear,  

Control as many antecedents as possible, 277

CC and DS to your presence, 277

Conclusion, 279

References, 279

10 Introductory Neurophysiology and Psychopharmacology, 281

Kenneth M. Martin

Introduction, 281

Basic neurophysiology, 282

Hindbrain, 283

Midbrain, 285

Forebrain, 285

Parietal lobe, 285

Occipital lobe, 285

Temporal lobe, 286

Basal ganglia, 286

Frontal lobe, 286

Hypothalamus/thalamus, 286

Olfactory bulb, 286

Blood–brain barrier, 287

Neurotransmitters, 287

Acetylcholine, 287

Monoamines, 287

Dopamine, 287

Norepinephrine/epinephrine, 288

Serotonin, 289

Gamma-Aminobutyric acid, 289

Glutamate, 289

Pharmacokinetics, 289

Drug categories, 290

Tranquilizers/neuroleptics/antipsychotics, 291

Anxiolytics, 294

    Benzodiazepines,

    Azapirones,

    Alpha-2 agonists,

Antidepressants, 295

Tricyclic antidepressants, 295

Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors, 295

Fluoxetine, 296

Paroxetine, 296

Monoamine oxidase inhibitors, 296

Selegiline, 296

Mood stabilizers, 297

Atypical antidepressants, 298

Trazodone, 298

Mirtazapine, 298

CNS stimulants, 298

Anticonvulsants,

   Gabapentin,

   Pregabalin,

     Nutraceuticals and supplements,

        Alpha-casozepine,

        L-Theanine,

        Probiotics,

        Omega 3s,

Conclusion, 299

References, 299

Further reading, 300

Appendix Section 1: Forms and Questionnaires

Appendix 1 Canine Behavior History Form

Part 1, 303

Appendix 2 Canine Behavior History Form

Part 2, 308

Appendix 3 Feline Behavior History Form

Part 1, 313

Appendix 4 Feline Behavior History Form

Part 2, 318

Appendix 5 Links for examples of online behavioral history forms

Appendix 6 Trainer Assessment Form, 322

Appendix 7 Determining Pet Owner Strain, 324

Appendix 8 Canine Behavior Plan of Care, 325

Appendix 9 Behavior Problem List, 327

Appendix 10 Technician Observation, 328

Appendix 11 Follow-up Communication Form, 329

Appendix 12 Behavior Diary, 331

Appendix 13 New Kitten (less than 3 months)

Questionnaire, 337

Appendix 14 New Puppy (less than 4 months)

Questionnaire, 339

Appendix 15 Juvenile, Adolescent, or Adult Cat (3 months to ∼12 years)  Questionnaire, 333

Appendix 16 Juvenile, Adolescent, or Adult Dog (4 months to ∼7 years)

Questionnaire, 335

Appendix 17 Senior or Geriatric Cat (greater ∼12 years)

Questionnaire, 341

Appendix 18 Senior or Geriatric Dog (∼7 + years)

Questionnaire, 343

Appendix 19 Pet Selection Counseling, 345

Appendix 20 Canine Breeder Interview

Questions, 347

Appendix 21 Veterinary Hospital Scavenger Hunt Canine

Appendix 22 Veterinary Hospital Scavenger Hunt Feline

Appendix Section 2: Training Exercises

Appendix 23 Acclimatizing a Pet to a Crate, 351

Appendix 24 Elimination Training Log, 352

Appendix 25 Shaping Plan for Teaching a Puppy to Ring a Bell to go Outside to Eliminate, 353

Appendix 26 Preventive Handling and Restraint Exercises, 354

Appendix 27 Preventive Food Bowl Exercises, 356

Appendix 28 Teaching Tug, 357

Appendix Section 3: Samples and Letters

Appendix 29 Canine Behavior Plan of Care Sample, 361

Appendix 30 Sample Field Assessment, 363

Appendix 31 Sample of a Pet Selection Report, 368

Appendix 32 Dr. Andrew Luescher’s Letter Regarding Puppy Socialization, 372

Appendix 33 Dr. RK Anderson’s Letter Regarding Puppy Socialization, 373

Appendix 34 Sample Puppy Socialization Class Curriculum, 375

Appendix 35 Sample Kitten Class Curriculum, 377

Index, 379