Carbonated Soft Drinks Formulation and Manufacture

by Steen, David; Ashurst, Philip R.

• ISBN13: 9781405134354
• ISBN10: 1405134356
• Edition: 1st
• Format: Hardcover
• Copyright: 2006-09-01
• Publisher: Wiley-Blackwell

Summary

The market for carbonated beverages has grown dramatically over recent years in most countries, and this growth has required changes in the way factories are run. Like other food products, soft drinks are required to be produced under stringent hygiene conditions. Filling technology has progressed rapidly to meet the needs of manufacturers and consumers alike. Packaging choices have changed and there have been improvements in closure design. This book provides an overview of carbonated soft drinks production in the early part of the twenty first century, presenting the latest information on carbonation and filling methods. There are also chapters on bottle design, can making, general packaging considerations, production and distribution. A final chapter deals with quality assurance, and environmental and legislative issues. Detailed references provide opportunity for further reading in more specialised areas. The book is aimed at graduates in food science, chemistry, microbiology and engineering who are considering a career in the soft drinks industry, as well as technical staff already employed within the industry and associated suppliers.

Author Biography

Dr David Steen, Consultant to the Beverage Industry, Murcia, Spain

Dr Philip Ashurst, Ashurst and Associates, Consulting Chemists to the Food Industry, Hereford, UK

Table of Contents

List of Contributors	xv
Preface	xvii
1 Introduction	1	(15)
Bob Hargitt
1.1 Early history	1	(2)
1.2 The growth of carbonates — production	3	(1)
1.3 Technological development	4	(6)
1.3.1 Carbon dioxide	4	(1)
1.3.2 Sweeteners	5	(2)
1.3.3 Flavours and colours	7	(1)
1.3.4 Packaging	8	(2)
1.4 Recent technological development	10	(1)
1.5 The growth of carbonates — consumption	10	(3)
1.6 Changing public perception and future challenges	13	(1)
Acknowledgements	14	(1)
Bibliography	14	(2)
2 Water treatment	16	(32)
Walter Tatlock
2.1 Introduction	16	(2)
2.2 Water quality	18	(3)
2.3 Town mains water	21	(2)
2.4 Boreholes	23	(1)
2.5 How to achieve the desired water quality	24	(1)
2.6 Sand filtration	25	(2)
2.7 Coagulation	27	(1)
2.8 Alkalinity reduction	28	(1)
2.9 Membrane filtration	29	(5)
2.10 Chlorination and carbon filtration	34	(1)
2.11 Iron removal	35	(1)
2.12 Nitrate removal	36	(2)
2.13 Polishing filters	38	(3)
2.14 Ultraviolet systems	41	(1)
2.15 Ozone technology	42	(1)
2.16 De-aeration	43	(1)
2.17 Factory water distribution systems	44	(2)
2.18 Factory water systems	46	(1)
References	46	(2)
3 Ingredients and formulation of carbonated soft drinks	48	(39)
Barry Taylor
3.1 Introduction	48	(1)
3.2 Factors influencing development of the industry	48	(3)
3.3 The move towards standardisation	51	(1)
3.4 The constituents of a soft drink	52	(2)
3.5 Water	54	(3)
3.5.1 Requirements	54	(1)
3.5.2 Quality of fresh water	55	(1)
3.5.3 Water hardness	55	(1)
3.5.4 Water treatment	55	(1)
3.5.5 Water impurities and their effect	55	(1)
3.5.5.1 Suspended particles	55	(1)
3.5.5.2 Organic matter	56	(1)
3.5.5.3 High alkalinity	56	(1)
3.5.5.4 Nitrates	57	(1)
3.6 Saccharides and high-intensity sweeteners	57	(1)
3.6.1 Bulk sweeteners	57	(1)
3.6.2 Intense sweeteners	58	(1)
3.7 Carbon dioxide	58	(1)
3.8 Acidulants	59	(4)
3.8.1 Citric acid	60	(1)
3.8.2 Tartaric acid	60	(1)
3.8.3 Phosphoric acid	61	(1)
3.8.4 Lactic acid	61	(1)
3.8.5 Acetic acid	62	(1)
3.8.6 Malic acid	62	(1)
3.8.7 Fumaric acid	62	(1)
3.8.8 Ascorbic acid	63	(1)
3.9 Flavourings	63	(10)
3.9.1 Flavourings and legislation	65	(1)
3.9.2 Flavourings in application	66	(1)
3.9.3 Water-miscible flavourings	66	(1)
3.9.3.1 Flavouring mixtures	66	(1)
3.9.3.2 Flavouring essence	67	(1)
3.9.3.3 Flavouring extract	68	(1)
3.9.4 Water-dispersible flavourings	68	(1)
3.9.4.1 Brominated vegetable oil (BVO) emulsions	72	(1)
3.10 Colours	73	(2)
3.11 Preservatives	75	(4)
3.11.1 Micro-organisms and beverages	76	(1)
3.11.2 Sulphur dioxide	77	(1)
3.11.3 Benzoic acid and benzoates	78	(1)
3.11.4 Sorbic acid and sorbates	79	(1)
3.12 More functional ingredients	79	(2)
3.12.1 Stabilisers	79	(1)
3.12.2 Saponins	80	(1)
3.12.3 Antioxidants	80	(1)
3.12.4 Calcium disodium EDTA	81	(1)
3.13 Retrospective investigation of a soft drink	81	(3)
3.14 Food safety	84	(1)
3.15 Future trends	85	(1)
Bibliography	86	(1)
4 Syrup preparation and syrup room operations	87	(25)
John Horman
4.1 Introduction	87	(1)
4.2 Syrup composition	88	(2)
4.3 Syrup rooms and proportioning systems	90	(1)
4.4 The modern syrup room	91	(5)
4.5 Instrumentation	96	(1)
4.6 Sugar	97	(3)
4.6.1 Sugar dissolving	97	(2)
4.6.2 Liquid sugar storage	99	(1)
4.7 Pre-mixes	100	(1)
4.8 Pasteurisation	101	(4)
4.8.1 Tunnel pasteurisation	101	(3)
4.8.2 Flash pasteurisation	104	(1)
4.9 Clean-in-place (CIP) systems	105	(3)
4.10 Process plant hygiene requirements	108	(1)
4.11 Syrup room building design	109	(1)
4.12 Future developments	110	(2)
5 Carbon dioxide, carbonation and the principles of filling technology	112	(32)
David P. Steen
5.1 Introduction	112	(1)
5.2 Carbon dioxide	113	(2)
5.3 Production of carbon dioxide	115	(4)
5.3.1 Fermentation	116	(1)
5.3.2 Flue gas recovery	116	(2)
5.3.3 Membrane separation systems	118	(1)
5.4 Specification of carbon dioxide	119	(1)
5.5 Delivery to the customer	120	(3)
5.6 Carbon dioxide storage	123	(1)
5.7 Carbonation	124	(5)
5.7.1 Basic considerations	124	(2)
5.7.2 Carbonation measurement	126	(2)
5.7.3 De-aeration	128	(1)
5.8 Carbonation systems	129	(4)
5.8.1 Carbonators	129	(2)
5.8.2 Gas bubble sparging	131	(2)
5.8.3 Bubbles in a glass of carbonated liquid	133	(1)
5.8.4 Process control	133	(1)
5.9 Filling principles	133	(9)
5.9.1 Gravity filler	135	(2)
5.9.2 Counter-pressure filler	137	(5)
5.10 Nitrogen	142	(1)
Further reading	142	(2)
6 Modern filling systems for carbonated soft drinks	144	(37)
Andrew Wilson and John Medling
6.1 Introduction	144	(3)
6.2 Modern carbonation systems	147	(2)
6.3 Counter-pressure fillers	149	(7)
6.3.1 Operation	149	(5)
6.3.2 Level filling	154	(2)
6.4 Glass bottle filling	156	(5)
6.4.1 Operation	156	(3)
6.4.2 Bottle burst protection	159	(2)
6.5 PET (polyethylene terephthalate) bottle filling	161	(5)
6.5.1 Operation	161	(1)
6.5.2 Size changing	162	(4)
6.6 Can filling	166	(8)
6.6.1 The volumetric can (VOC) filler	166	(2)
6.6.2 System expansion – the VOC-C can filler	168	(2)
6.6.3 Product level- and pressure-control system in a free-standing product tank	170	(1)
6.6.3.1 Level control	170	(1)
6.6.3.2 Filling pressure control	170	(1)
6.6.4 Procedural steps of the filling cycle	170	(1)
6.6.4.1 Flushing phase I	171	(1)
6.6.4.2 Flushing phase II	171	(1)
6.6.4.3 Pressurising	171	(1)
6.6.4.4 Filling	171	(1)
6.6.4.5 Snifting	172	(1)
6.6.4.6 Recharging the metering chamber	172	(1)
6.6.4.7 CIP cleaning	173	(1)
6.7 Other filler options	174	(1)
6.8 Clean-in-place	175	(2)
6.9 Filler hygienic design	177	(1)
6.10 Conclusions	178	(3)
7 Bottle design and manufacture and related packaging	181	(37)
David Syrett
7.1 Introduction – the objectives of packaging	181	(1)
7.2 Glass	182	(12)
7.2.1 History of glass making	182	(2)
7.2.2 Bottle supplier identification marks	184	(1)
7.2.3 Bottle design and headspace considerations	184	(1)
7.2.4 Glass bottle manufacturing processes	185	(1)
7.2.4.1 The melting process	185	(1)
7.2.4.2 Glass bottle forming	187	(2)
7.2.5 Glass quality faults	189	(1)
7.2.5.1 Critical defects	189	(1)
7.2.5.2 Major defects	189	(1)
7.2.5.3 Minor defects	190	(2)
7.2.6 Single and multiple trip bottles	192	(1)
7.2.7 Lightweighting	193	(1)
7.2.8 Recycling	194	(1)
7.3 Plastic bottles	194	(6)
7.3.1 Introduction – advantages and limitations	194	(1)
7.3.1.1 Advantages	194	(1)
7.3.1.2 Limitations	195	(1)
7.3.2 Polyethylene terephthalate	195	(1)
7.3.3 History	195	(1)
7.3.4 PET bottles today	196	(1)
7.3.4.1 Preforms	196	(1)
7.3.4.2 Bottle blowing	196	(2)
7.3.5 Multilayer and barrier coating	198	(1)
7.3.6 Carbonation loss	198	(1)
7.3.7 Permeability of polymers	198	(2)
7.3.8 Recycling methods	200	(1)
7.4 Closures for carbonated soft drinks	200	(6)
7.4.1 Introduction	200	(1)
7.4.2 Headspace pressure	201	(1)
7.4.3 Roll on metal closures	202	(1)
7.4.4 Plastic closures	202	(1)
7.4.5 Development of the PET bottle finish	203	(2)
7.4.6 Crown corks (pry off/twist off)	205	(1)
7.4.7 Other closures (vacuum lug/rip off)	205	(1)
7.5 Cans and ends	206	(3)
7.5.1 Introduction	206	(1)
7.5.2 The can making process	206	(1)
7.5.2.1 Front-end processes	206	(1)
7.5.2.2 Decoration processes	207	(1)
7.5.2.3 Back-end processes	207	(1)
7.5.3 Graphics decoration	208	(1)
7.5.4 Ends	208	(1)
7.5.5 The double seam	208	(1)
7.5.6 Can end stress corrosion	208	(1)
7.6 Labels and labelling	209	(7)
7.6.1 Introduction	209	(1)
7.6.2 Paper manufacturing	210	(1)
7.6.3 Labelling	210	(2)
7.6.4 Patch labellers	212	(1)
7.6.5 Wraparound labellers	213	(2)
7.6.6 Sleeving	215	(1)
7.6.7 Labelling in production	215	(1)
7.6.8 Date coding (ink jet/laser)	216	(1)
7.7 Future trends – putting it all together	216	(1)
Further reading	217	(1)
8 Secondary packaging considerations	218	(41)
David Rose
8.1 Introduction	218	(1)
8.2 Requirements of the supply chain	219	(8)
8.2.1 Overview	219	(2)
8.2.2 Major multiple	221	(1)
8.2.2.1 Pallet receipt	221	(1)
8.2.2.2 Pallet breakdown and load picking	221	(1)
8.2.2.3 Bar codes	221	(1)
8.2.2.4 Store delivery	222	(2)
8.2.3 Cash & Carry	224	(1)
8.2.3.1 Pallet breakdown and load picking	224	(1)
8.2.3.2 Pack graphics	224	(1)
8.2.3.3 Bar codes	224	(1)
8.2.4 Bulk break	224	(1)
8.2.5 Poor packs – no sale?	225	(1)
8.2.6 Material — performance versus specification	225	(2)
8.3 Pack styles	227	(4)
8.3.1 Shrink wrap	227	(1)
8.3.2 Trade ready display unit (TRDU)	228	(1)
8.3.3 Shelf ready packing	229	(2)
8.3.4 Returnable crate	231	(1)
8.4 Shrink film production	231	(8)
8.4.1 Film considerations	231	(2)
8.4.2 Shrink wrap packers	233	(1)
8.4.3 Printed shrink wrap	234	(5)
8.5 Corrugated fibreboard	239	(1)
8.5.1 Specifications	239	(1)
8.5.2 Corrugated board manufacture	240	(1)
8.6 Stretch wrap	240	(8)
8.6.1 Material	240	(4)
8.6.2 Stretch wrapping systems	244	(3)
8.6.3 Pallet wrapping	247	(1)
8.7 Pallets and pallet stacking	248	(1)
8.7.1 Pallets	248	(1)
8.7.2 Pallet stacking	248	(1)
8.8 Case and pallet labelling	249	(4)
8.9 Getting it wrong	253	(4)
8.10 Developments and testing	257	(1)
8.11 Putting it all together	258	(1)
9 Production systems	259	(31)
David Steen
9.1 Introduction	259	(1)
9.2 Philosophy of line layouts	259	(1)
9.3 Glass bottle filling lines	260	(7)
9.4 Can filling lines	267	(1)
9.5 PET bottle filling lines	268	(2)
9.6 Conveying systems	270	(2)
9.7 Inspection systems	272	(2)
9.8 Breakdown characteristics	274	(3)
9.9 Line control and management systems	277	(3)
9.10 Complete factory layouts	280	(3)
9.11 Buildings	283	(2)
9.12 Performance measurement and benchmarking	285	(3)
9.13 Future trends	288	(1)
Further reading	289	(1)
10 Production planning and distribution	290	(29)
Philip A. Wood
10.1 Introduction	290	(1)
10.2 Supply chain principles	291	(8)
10.2.1 Make versus buy	292	(1)
10.2.2 Make to order or make to stock	293	(1)
10.2.3 Purchasing	294	(2)
10.2.4 The soft drinks supply chain	296	(2)
10.2.5 The bullwhip effect	298	(1)
10.3 Forecasting	299	(2)
10.3.1 Forecast breakdown or types	300	(1)
10.3.2 Forecast preparation and accuracy	301	(1)
10.4 Planning	301	(6)
10.4.1 The planning and order cycle	301	(3)
10.4.2 Central or local planning	304	(3)
10.5 Warehousing	307	(8)
10.5.1 Environment	314	(1)
10.5.2 Stock control	314	(1)
10.6 Transport and legislation	315	(1)
10.7 Measuring supply chain performance	316	(1)
10.7.1 Service	316	(1)
10.7.2 Costs	317	(1)
10.7.3 People	317	(1)
10.7.4 Resources	317	(1)
10.8 Conclusions and future developments	317	(1)
Bibliography	318	(1)
11 Quality, environment and food safety systems	319	(24)
Ray Helliwell
11.1 Why have systems?	319	(2)
11.1.1 Definitions	319	(1)
11.1.2 Space shuttle fails	319	(1)
11.1.3 Risk management	320	(1)
11.1.4 A solution?	320	(1)
11.2 Management control	321	(2)
11.2.1 Constraints — legislation	321	(1)
11.2.2 Stakeholders determine your future	321	(1)
11.2.3 Size matters	322	(1)
11.2.4 Experts, but not owners	322	(1)
11.3 Management systems	323	(2)
11.3.1 Four stages	323	(1)
11.3.2 Decisions	323	(1)
11.3.3 Make the product	323	(1)
11.3.4 Test and record results	324	(1)
11.3.5 Review	324	(1)
11.4 International management systems – why?	325	(2)
11.4.1 Notice board systems	325	(1)
11.4.2 Detect and protect	325	(1)
11.4.3 Automation = automatically wrong	326	(1)
11.4.4 Quantity and quality	326	(1)
11.4.5 Systems converge	327	(1)
11.5 The standards – a brief background	327	(4)
11.5.1 ISO 9001 is the master	327	(1)
11.5.2 Customer pressure	327	(1)
11.5.3 Customer audits	328	(1)
11.5.4 A standard is born	328	(1)
11.5.5 Is ISO 22000 necessary?	329	(1)
11.5.6 Other standards	330	(1)
11.5.7 Systems director	330	(1)
11.5.8 Standards improvement mechanisms	331	(1)
11.6 ISO Standards – common elements	331	(1)
11.7 The quality management system (QMS) -- BS EN ISO 9001	332	(3)
11.7.1 Resource management [6]	332	(1)
11.7.2 Contract review [7.2]	332	(1)
11.7.3 Purchasing [7.4]	332	(1)
11.7.4 Product realization [7]	332	(1)
11.7.5 Product development [7.3]	333	(1)
11.7.6 Control or test [7.5.2]	333	(1)
11.7.7 Quality assurance – process control	333	(1)
11.7.8 Quality control – sample testing	334	(1)
11.7.9 Warehousing [7.5.5] and distribution [7.5.1]	335	(1)
11.7.10 Control of non-conforming product [8.3]	335	(1)
11.8 The food safety management system (FSMS) – BS EN ISO 22000	335	(4)
11.8.1 The standard of the future?	335	(1)
11.8.2 Policy [5.2]	335	(1)
11.8.3 Pre-requisite programmes [7.2]	336	(1)
11.8.4 Product characteristics [7.3.3]	336	(1)
11.8.5 HACCP [7.6]	336	(1)
11.8.6 Decision tree	337	(2)
11.8.7 No foolproof systems	339	(1)
11.9 The environmental management system (EMS) – BS EN ISO 14001	339	(3)
11.9.1 Drains and skips – duty of care	339	(1)
11.9.2 Producer responsibility	339	(1)
11.9.3 Climate change levy	340	(1)
11.9.4 Pollution prevention and control permits	340	(1)
11.9.5 EMS policy [4.2]	340	(1)
11.9.6 Aspects and impacts [4.3.1]	340	(1)
11.9.7 Significance [4.3.1(b)]	341	(1)
11.9.8 Legislation updates [4.3.2]	341	(1)
11.9.9 Emergency preparedness and response [4.4.7]	341	(1)
11.10 Systems — a summary	342	(1)
Index	343