Ceramic Materials

by Carter, C. Barry; Norton, M. Grant

• ISBN13: 9780387462707
• ISBN10: 0387462708
• Format: Hardcover
• Copyright: 2007-04-01
• Publisher: Springer Verlag

Summary

Ceramic Materials: Science and Engineering is an up-to-date treatment of ceramic science, engineering, and applications in a single, integrated text. Building on a foundation of crystal structures, phase equilibria, defects and the mechanical properties of ceramic materials, students are shown how these materials are processed for a broad diversity of applications in today's society. Concepts such as how and why ions move, how ceramics interact with light and magnetic fields, and how they respond to temperature changes are discussed in the context of their applications. References to the art and history of ceramics are included throughout the text. The text concludes with discussions of ceramics in biology and medicine, ceramics as gemstones and the role of ceramics in the interplay between industry and the environment. Extensively illustrated, the text also includes questions for the student and recommendations for additional reading. KEY FEATURES: Combines the treatment of bioceramics, furnaces, glass, optics, pores, gemstones, and point defects in a single text Provides abundant examples and illustrations relating theory to practical applications Suitable for advanced undergraduate and graduate teaching and as a reference for researchers in materials science Written by established and successful teachers and authors with experience in both research and industry

Author Biography

C. Barry Carter, Department of Chemical Engineering and Materials Science, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN.

Table of Contents

Preface	p. vii
History and Introduction
Introduction	p. 3
Definitions	p. 3
General Properties	p. 4
Types of Ceramic and their Applications	p. 5
Market	p. 6
Critical Issues for the Future	p. 7
Relationship between Microstructure, Processing and Properties	p. 8
Safety	p. 9
Ceramics on the Internet	p. 10
On Units	p. 10
Some History	p. 15
Earliest Ceramics: The Stone Age	p. 15
Ceramics in Ancient Civilizations	p. 17
Clay	p. 19
Types of Pottery	p. 19
Glazes	p. 20
Development of a Ceramics Industry	p. 21
Plaster and Cement	p. 22
Brief History of Glass	p. 24
Brief History of Refractories	p. 25
Major Landmarks of the Twentieth Century	p. 26
Museums	p. 28
Societies	p. 29
Ceramic Education	p. 29
Materials
Background You Need to Know	p. 35
The Atom	p. 35
Energy Levels	p. 36
Electron Waves	p. 37
Quantum Numbers	p. 37
Assigning Quantum Numbers	p. 39
Ions	p. 42
Electronegativity	p. 44
Thermodynamics: The Driving Force for Change	p. 45
Kinetics: The Speed of Change	p. 47
Bonds and Energy Bands	p. 51
Types of Interatomic Bond	p. 51
Young's Modulus	p. 51
Ionic Bonding	p. 53
Covalent Bonding	p. 58
Metallic Bonding in Ceramics	p. 63
Mixed Bonding	p. 64
Secondary Bonding	p. 64
Electron Energy Bands in Ceramics	p. 66
Models, Crystals, and Chemistry	p. 71
Terms and Definitions	p. 71
Symmetry and Crystallography	p. 74
Lattice Points, Directions, and Planes	p. 75
The Importance of Crystallography	p. 76
Pauling's Rules	p. 76
Close-Packed Arrangements: Interstitial Sites	p. 79
Notation for Crystal Structures	p. 81
Structure, Composition, and Temperature	p. 81
Crystals, Glass, Solids, and Liquid	p. 82
Defects	p. 83
Computer Modeling	p. 83
Binary Compounds	p. 87
Background	p. 87
CsCl	p. 88
NaCl (MgO, TiC, PbS)	p. 88
GaAs ([Beta]-SiC)	p. 89
AlN (BeO, ZnO)	p. 90
CaF[subscript 2]	p. 91
FeS[subscript 2]	p. 92
Cu[subscript 2]0	p. 93
CuO	p. 93
TiO[subscript 2]	p. 93
Al[subscript 2]O[subscript 3]	p. 94
MoS[subscript 2] and CdI[subscript 2]	p. 95
Polymorphs, Polytypes, and Polytypoids	p. 96
Complex Crystal and Glass Structures	p. 100
Introduction	p. 100
Spinel	p. 101
Perovskite	p. 102
The Silicates and Structures Based on SiO[subscript 4]	p. 104
Silica	p. 105
Olivine	p. 106
Garnets	p. 107
Ring Silicates	p. 107
Micas and Other Layer Materials	p. 108
Clay Minerals	p. 109
Pyroxene	p. 109
[Beta]-Aluminas and Related Materials	p. 110
Calcium Aluminate and Related Materials	p. 111
Mullite	p. 111
Monazite	p. 111
YBa[subscript 2]Cu[subscript 3]O[subscript 7] and Related High-Temperature Superconductors (HTSCs)	p. 112
Si[subscript 3]N[subscript 4], SiAlONs, and Related Materials	p. 113
Fullerenes and Nanotubes	p. 113
Zeolites and Microporous Compounds	p. 114
Zachariasen's Rules for the Structure of Glass	p. 115
Revisiting Glass Structures	p. 117
Equilibrium Phase Diagrams	p. 120
What's Special about Ceramics?	p. 120
Determining Phase Diagrams	p. 121
Phase Diagrams for Ceramists: The Books	p. 124
Gibbs Phase Rule	p. 124
One Component (C = 1)	p. 125
Two Components (C = 2)	p. 126
Three and More Components	p. 128
Composition with Variable Oxygen Partial Pressure	p. 130
Quaternary Diagrams and Temperature	p. 132
Congruent and Incongruent Melting	p. 132
Miscibility Gaps in Glass	p. 133
Tools
Furnaces	p. 139
The Need for High Temperatures	p. 139
Types of Furnace	p. 139
Combustion Furnaces	p. 140
Electrically Heated Furnaces	p. 141
Batch or Continuous Operation	p. 141
Indirect Heating	p. 143
Heating Elements	p. 144
Refractories	p. 146
Furniture, Tubes, and Crucibles	p. 147
Firing Process	p. 148
Heat Transfer	p. 148
Measuring Temperature	p. 149
Safety	p. 151
Characterizing Structure, Defects, and Chemistry	p. 154
Characterizing Ceramics	p. 154
Imaging Using Visible-Light, IR, and UV	p. 155
Imaging Using X-rays and CT Scans	p. 157
Imaging in the SEM	p. 158
Imaging in the TEM	p. 159
Scanning-Probe Microscopy	p. 161
Scattering and Diffraction Techniques	p. 162
Photon Scattering	p. 163
Raman and IR Spectroscopy	p. 163
NMR Spectroscopy and Spectrometry	p. 165
Mossbauer Spectroscopy and Spectrometry	p. 166
Diffraction in the EM	p. 168
Ion Scattering (RBS)	p. 168
X-ray Diffraction and Databases	p. 169
Neutron Scattering	p. 171
Mass Spectrometry	p. 172
Spectrometry in the EM	p. 172
Electron Spectroscopy	p. 174
Neutron Activation Analysis (NAA)	p. 175
Thermal Analysis	p. 175
Defects
Point Defects, Charge, and Diffusion	p. 181
Are Defects in Ceramics Different?	p. 181
Types of Point Defects	p. 182
What Is Special for Ceramics?	p. 183
What Type of Defects Form?	p. 184
Equilibrium Defect Concentrations	p. 184
Writing Equations for Point Defects	p. 186
Solid Solutions	p. 187
Association of Point Defects	p. 189
Color Centers	p. 190
Creation of Point Defects in Ceramics	p. 191
Experimental Studies of Point Defects	p. 192
Diffusion	p. 192
Diffusion in Impure, or Doped, Ceramics	p. 193
Movement of Defects	p. 197
Diffusion and Ionic Conductivity	p. 197
Computing	p. 199
Are Dislocations Unimportant?	p. 201
A Quick Review of Dislocations	p. 202
Summary of Dislocation Properties	p. 206
Observation of Dislocations	p. 206
Dislocations in Ceramics	p. 208
Structure of the Core	p. 208
Detailed Geometry	p. 211
Defects on Dislocations	p. 214
Dislocations and Diffusion	p. 215
Movement of Dislocations	p. 216
Multiplication of Dislocations	p. 216
Dislocation Interactions	p. 217
At the Surface	p. 219
Indentation, Scratching, and Cracks	p. 219
Dislocations with Different Cores	p. 220
Surfaces, Nanoparticles, and Foams	p. 224
Background to Surfaces	p. 224
Ceramic Surfaces	p. 225
Surface Energy	p. 225
Surface Structure	p. 227
Curved Surfaces and Pressure	p. 230
Capillarity	p. 230
Wetting and Dewetting	p. 231
Foams	p. 232
Epitaxy and Film Growth	p. 233
Film Growth in 2D: Nucleation	p. 233
Film Growth in 2D: Mechanisms	p. 234
Characterizing Surfaces	p. 235
Steps	p. 239
In Situ	p. 240
Surfaces and Nanoparticles	p. 241
Computer Modeling	p. 241
Introduction to Properties	p. 242
Interfaces in Polycrystals	p. 246
What Are Grain Boundaries?	p. 246
For Ceramics	p. 248
GB Energy	p. 249
Low-Angle GBs	p. 251
High-Angle GBs	p. 254
Twin Boundaries	p. 255
General Boundaries	p. 258
GB Films	p. 259
Triple Junctions and GB Grooves	p. 262
Characterizing GBs	p. 263
GBs in Thin Films	p. 264
Space Charge and Charged Boundaries	p. 265
Modeling	p. 265
Some Properties	p. 265
Phase Boundaries, Particles, and Pores	p. 269
The Importance	p. 269
Different Types	p. 269
Compared to Other Materials	p. 270
Energy	p. 270
The Structure of PBs	p. 271
Particles	p. 272
Use of Particles	p. 276
Nucleation and Growth of Particles	p. 276
Pores	p. 277
Measuring Porosity	p. 278
Porous Ceramics	p. 279
Glass/Crystal Phase Boundaries	p. 280
Eutectics	p. 281
Metal/Ceramic PBs	p. 282
Forming PBs by Joining	p. 283
Mechanical Strength and Weakness
Mechanical Testing	p. 289
Philosophy	p. 289
Types of Testing	p. 291
Elastic Constants and Other "Constants"	p. 292
Effect of Microstructure on Elastic Moduli	p. 294
Test Temperature	p. 295
Test Environment	p. 296
Testing in Compression and Tension	p. 296
Three- and Four-Point Bending	p. 297
K[subscript Ic] from Bend Test	p. 298
Indentation	p. 299
Fracture Toughness from Indentation	p. 300
Nanoindentation	p. 301
Ultrasonic Testing	p. 301
Design and Statistics	p. 302
SPT Diagrams	p. 305
Deforming: Plasticity	p. 309
Plastic Deformation	p. 309
Dislocation Glide	p. 310
Slip in Alumina	p. 312
Plastic Deformation in Single Crystals	p. 313
Plastic Deformation in Polycrystals	p. 314
Dislocation Velocity and Pinning	p. 315
Creep	p. 317
Dislocation Creep	p. 317
Diffusion-Controlled Creep	p. 318
Grain-Boundary Sliding	p. 318
Tertiary Creep and Cavitation	p. 319
Creep Deformation Maps	p. 321
Viscous Flow	p. 321
Superplasticity	p. 322
Fracturing: Brittleness	p. 325
The Importance of Brittleness	p. 325
Theoretical Strength: The Orowan Equation	p. 326
The Effect of Flaws: The Griffith Equation	p. 327
The Crack Tip: The Inglis Equation	p. 329
Stress Intensity Factor	p. 329
R Curves	p. 330
Fatigue and Stress Corrosion Cracking	p. 331
Failure and Fractography	p. 332
Toughening and Ceramic Matrix Composites	p. 335
Machinable Glass-Ceramics	p. 338
Wear	p. 338
Grinding and Polishing	p. 339
Processing
Raw Materials	p. 345
Geology, Minerals, and Ores	p. 345
Mineral Formation	p. 345
Beneficiation	p. 347
Weights and Measures	p. 347
Silica	p. 348
Silicates	p. 348
Oxides	p. 351
Nonoxides	p. 354
Powders, Fibers, Platelets, and Composites	p. 359
Making Powders	p. 359
Types of Powders	p. 360
Mechanical Milling	p. 360
Spray Drying	p. 362
Powders by Sol-Gel Processing	p. 363
Powders by Precipitation	p. 363
Chemical Routes to Nonoxide Powders	p. 364
Platelets	p. 365
Nanopowders by Vapor-Phase Reactions	p. 365
Characterizing Powders	p. 366
Characterizing Powders by Microscopy	p. 366
Sieving	p. 366
Sedimentation	p. 367
The Coulter Counter	p. 368
Characterizing Powders by Light Scattering	p. 368
Characterizing Powders by X-ray Diffraction	p. 369
Measuring Surface Area (the BET Method)	p. 369
Determining Particle Composition and Purity	p. 370
Making Fibers and Whiskers	p. 370
Oxide Fibers	p. 371
Whiskers	p. 372
Glass Fibers	p. 372
Coating Fibers	p. 373
Making Ceramic-Matrix Composites	p. 374
Ceramic-Matrix Composites from Powders and Slurries	p. 374
Ceramic-Matrix Composites by Infiltration	p. 375
In Situ Processes	p. 375
Glass and Glass-Ceramics	p. 379
Definitions	p. 379
History	p. 380
Viscosity, [eta]	p. 383
Glass: A Summary of Its Properties, or Not	p. 385
Defects in Glass	p. 386
Heterogeneous Glass	p. 386
Yttrium-Aluminum Glass	p. 386
Coloring Glass	p. 386
Glass Laser	p. 388
Precipitates in Glass	p. 388
Crystallizing Glass	p. 388
Glass as Glaze and Enamel	p. 390
Corrosion of Glass and Glaze	p. 392
Types of Ceramic Glasses	p. 393
Natural Glass	p. 394
The Physics of Glass	p. 396
Sols, Gels, and Organic Chemistry	p. 400
Sol-Gel Processing	p. 400
Structure and Synthesis of Alkoxides	p. 401
Properties of Alkoxides	p. 402
The Sol-Gel Process Using Metal Alkoxides	p. 403
Characterization of the Sol-Gel Process	p. 406
Powders, Coatings, Fibers, Crystalline, or Glass	p. 407
Shaping and Forming	p. 412
The Words	p. 412
Binders and Plasticizers	p. 413
Slip and Slurry	p. 413
Dry Pressing	p. 414
Hot Pressing	p. 414
Cold Isostatic Pressing	p. 415
Hot Isostatic Pressing	p. 416
Slip Casting	p. 417
Extrusion	p. 418
Injection Molding	p. 419
Rapid Prototyping	p. 420
Green Machining	p. 420
Binder Burnout	p. 421
Final Machining	p. 421
Making Porous Ceramics	p. 422
Shaping Pottery	p. 422
Shaping Glass	p. 423
Sintering and Grain Growth	p. 427
The Sintering Process	p. 427
The Terminology of Sintering	p. 429
Capillary Forces and Surface Forces	p. 429
Sintering Spheres and Wires	p. 429
Grain Growth	p. 431
Sintering and Diffusion	p. 431
Liquid-Phase Sintering	p. 433
Hot Pressing	p. 433
Pinning Grain Boundaries	p. 434
More Grain Growth	p. 435
Grain Boundaries, Surfaces, and Sintering	p. 436
Exaggerated Grain Growth	p. 437
Fabricating Complex Shapes	p. 438
Pottery	p. 439
Pores and Porous Ceramics	p. 439
Sintering with Two and Three Phases	p. 440
Examples of Sintering in Action	p. 441
Computer Modeling	p. 441
Solid-State Phase Transformations and Reactions	p. 444
Transformations and Reactions: The Link	p. 444
The Terminology	p. 445
Technology	p. 445
Phase Transformations without Changing Chemistry	p. 447
Phase Transformations Changing Chemistry	p. 448
Methods for Studying Kinetics	p. 449
Diffusion through a Layer: Slip Casting	p. 450
Diffusion through a Layer: Solid-State Reactions	p. 451
The Spinel-Forming Reaction	p. 451
Inert Markers and Reaction Barriers	p. 452
Simplified Darken Equation	p. 453
The Incubation Period	p. 454
Particle Growth and the Effect of Misfit	p. 454
Thin-Film Reactions	p. 455
Reactions in an Electric Field	p. 457
Phase Transformations Involving Glass	p. 458
Pottery	p. 459
Cement	p. 459
Reactions Involving a Gas Phase	p. 460
Curved Interfaces	p. 461
Processing Glass and Glass-Ceramics	p. 463
The Market for Glass and Glass Products	p. 463
Processing Bulk Glasses	p. 463
Bubbles	p. 467
Flat Glass	p. 468
Float-Glass	p. 469
Glassblowing	p. 470
Coating Glass	p. 472
Safety Glass	p. 473
Foam Glass	p. 473
Sealing Glass	p. 473
Enamel	p. 474
Photochromic Glass	p. 474
Ceramming: Changing Glass to Glass-Ceramics	p. 474
Glass for Art and Sculpture	p. 476
Glass for Science and Engineering	p. 478
Coatings and Thick Films	p. 481
Defining Thick Film	p. 481
Tape Casting	p. 481
Dip Coating	p. 484
Spin Coating	p. 484
Spraying	p. 485
Electrophoretic Deposition	p. 486
Thick-Film Circuits	p. 488
Thin Films and Vapor Deposition	p. 494
The Difference between Thin Films and Thick Films	p. 494
Acronyms, Adjectives, and Hyphens	p. 494
Requirements for Thin Ceramic Films	p. 495
Chemical Vapor Deposition	p. 495
Thermodynamics of Chemical Vapor Deposition	p. 497
Chemical Vapor Deposition of Ceramic Films for Semiconductor Devices	p. 498
Types of Chemical Vapor Deposition	p. 499
Chemical Vapor Deposition Safety	p. 500
Evaporation	p. 500
Sputtering	p. 501
Molecular-Beam Epitaxy	p. 502
Pulsed-Laser Deposition	p. 503
Ion-Beam-Assisted Deposition	p. 504
Substrates	p. 504
Growing Single Crystals	p. 507
Why Single Crystals?	p. 507
A Brief History of Growing Ceramic Single Crystals	p. 507
Methods for Growing Single Crystals of Ceramics	p. 508
Melt Technique: Verneuil (Flame-Fusion)	p. 509
Melt Technique: Arc-Image Growth	p. 511
Melt Technique: Czochralski	p. 511
Melt Technique: Skull Melting	p. 514
Melt Technique: Bridgman-Stockbarger	p. 515
Melt Technique: Heat-Exchange Method	p. 516
Applying Phase Diagrams to Single-Crystal Growth	p. 516
Solution Technique: Hydrothermal	p. 517
Solution Technique: Hydrothermal Growth at Low Temperature	p. 519
Solution Technique: Flux Growth	p. 519
Solution Technique: Growing Diamonds	p. 521
Vapor Technique: Vapor-Liquid-Solid	p. 521
Vapor Technique: Sublimation	p. 522
Preparing Substrates for Thin-Film Applications	p. 522
Growing Nanowires and Nanotubes by Vapor-Liquid-Solid and Not	p. 522
Properties and Applications
Conducting Charge or Not	p. 529
Ceramics as Electrical Conductors	p. 529
Conduction Mechanisms in Ceramics	p. 531
Number of Conduction Electrons	p. 532
Electron Mobility	p. 533
Effect of Temperature	p. 533
Ceramics with Metal-Like Conductivity	p. 534
Applications for High-[sigma] Ceramics	p. 535
Semiconducting Ceramics	p. 537
Examples of Extrinsic Semiconductors	p. 539
Varistors	p. 540
Thermistors	p. 541
Wide-Band-Gap Semiconductors	p. 542
Ion Conduction	p. 543
Fast Ion Conductors	p. 543
Batteries	p. 544
Fuel Cells	p. 544
Ceramic Insulators	p. 546
Substrates and Packages for Integrated Circuits	p. 548
Insulating Layers in Integrated Circuits	p. 549
Superconductivity	p. 550
Ceramic Superconductors	p. 551
Locally Redistributing Charge	p. 556
Background on Dielectrics	p. 556
Ferroelectricity	p. 560
BaTiO[subscript 3]: The Prototypical Ferroelectric	p. 562
Solid Solutions with BaTiO[subscript 3]	p. 565
Other Ferroelectric Ceramics	p. 565
Relaxor Dielectrics	p. 565
Ceramic Capacitors	p. 565
Ceramic Ferroelectrics for Memory Applications	p. 568
Piezoelectricity	p. 569
Lead Zirconate-Lead Titanate (PZT) Solid Solutions	p. 570
Applications for Piezoelectric Ceramics	p. 571
Piezoelectric Materials for Microelectromechanical Systems	p. 572
Pyroelectricity	p. 572
Applications for Pyroelectric Ceramics	p. 573
Interacting with and Generating Light	p. 575
Some Background for Optical Ceramics	p. 575
Transparency	p. 577
The Refractive Index	p. 578
Reflection from Ceramic Surfaces	p. 579
Color in Ceramics	p. 580
Coloring Glass and Glazes	p. 581
Ceramic Pigments and Stains	p. 581
Translucent Ceramics	p. 583
Lamp Envelopes	p. 584
Fluorescence	p. 585
The Basics of Optical Fibers	p. 586
Phosphors and Emitters	p. 588
Solid-State Lasers	p. 589
Electrooptic Ceramics for Optical Devices	p. 590
Reacting to Other Parts of the Spectrum	p. 594
Optical Ceramics in Nature	p. 595
Using Magnetic Fields and Storing Data	p. 598
A Brief History of Magnetic Ceramics	p. 598
Magnetic Dipoles	p. 599
The Basic Equations, the Words, and the Units	p. 600
The Five Classes of Magnetic Material	p. 601
Diamagnetic Ceramics	p. 601
Superconducting Magnets	p. 602
Paramagnetic Ceramics	p. 603
Measuring X	p. 604
Ferromagnetism	p. 604
Antiferromagnetism and Colossal Magnetoresistance	p. 605
Ferrimagnetism	p. 606
Estimating the Magnetization of Ferrimagnets	p. 609
Magnetic Domains and Bloch Walls	p. 609
Imaging Magnetic Domains	p. 610
Motion of Domain Walls and Hysteresis Loops	p. 611
Hard and Soft Ferrites	p. 612
Microwave Ferrites	p. 614
Data Storage and Recording	p. 614
Magnetic Nanoparticles	p. 616
Responding to Temperature Changes	p. 619
Summary of Terms and Units	p. 619
Absorption and Heat Capacity	p. 619
Melting Temperatures	p. 621
Vaporization	p. 623
Thermal Conductivity	p. 624
Measuring Thermal Conductivity	p. 626
Microstructure and Thermal Conductivity	p. 626
Using High Thermal Conductivity	p. 628
Thermal Expansion	p. 628
Effect of Crystal Structure on [alpha]	p. 630
Thermal Expansion Measurment	p. 631
Importance of Matching [alpha]s	p. 632
Applications for Low-[alpha]	p. 632
Thermal Shock	p. 633
Ceramics in Biology and Medicine	p. 635
What Are Bioceramics?	p. 635
Advantages and Disadvantages of Ceramics	p. 636
Ceramic Implants and the Structure of Bone	p. 638
Alumina and Zirconia	p. 639
Bioactive Glasses	p. 640
Bioactive Glass-Ceramics	p. 641
Hydroxyapatite	p. 642
Bioceramics in Composites	p. 644
Bioceramic Coatings	p. 645
Radiotherapy Glasses	p. 646
Pyrolytic Carbon Heart Valves	p. 646
Nanobioceramics	p. 647
Dental Ceramics	p. 648
Biomimetics	p. 648
Minerals and Gems	p. 652
Minerals	p. 652
What Is a Gem?	p. 653
In the Rough	p. 653
Cutting and Polishing	p. 654
Light and Optics in Gemology	p. 656
Color in Gems and Minerals	p. 660
Optical Effects	p. 661
Identifying Minerals and Gems	p. 663
Chemical Stability (Durability)	p. 664
Diamonds, Sapphires, Rubies, and Emeralds	p. 664
Opal	p. 666
Other Gems	p. 667
Minerals with Inclusions	p. 669
Treatment of Gems	p. 670
The Mineral and Gem Trade	p. 670
Industry and the Environment	p. 675
The Beginning of the Modern Ceramics Industry	p. 675
Growth and Globalization	p. 676
Types of Market	p. 677
Case Studies	p. 677
Emerging Areas	p. 680
Mining	p. 682
Recycling	p. 683
In the Nuclear Industry	p. 685
Producing and Storing Hydrogen	p. 685
As Green Materials	p. 687
Index	p. 691
Details for Figures and Tables	p. 701
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