Chemical Beam Epitaxy and Related Techniques

by Foord, John S.; Davies, G. J.; Tsang, W. T.

• ISBN13: 9780471967484
• ISBN10: 0471967483
• Edition: 1st
• Format: Hardcover
• Copyright: 1997-12-08
• Publisher: Wiley

Summary

Chemical Beam Epitaxy (CBE), is a powerful growth technique which has come to prominence over the last ten years. Together with the longer established molecular beam epitaxy (MBE) and metal organic vapour phase epitaxy (MOVPE), CBE provides a capability for the epitaxial growth of semiconductor and other advanced materials with control at the atomic limit. This, the first book dedicated to CBE, and closely related techniques comprises chapters by leading research workers in the field and provides a detailed overview of the state-of-the-art in this area of semiconductor technology. Topics covered include equipment design and safety considerations, design of chemical precursors, surface chemistry and growth mechanisms, materials and devices from arsenide, phosphide, antimonide, silicon and II-VI compounds, doping, selected area epitaxy and etching. The volume provides an introduction for those new to the field and a detailed summary for experienced researchers.

Author Biography

John S Foord and G. J. Davies are the authors of Chemical Beam Epitaxy and Related Techniques, published by Wiley.

Table of Contents

List of Contributors	xiii	(2)
Preface	xv
CHAPTER 1 Chemical Beam Epitaxy: An introduction	1	(12)
G. J. Davies
J. S. Foord
W. T. Tsang
1.1 Introduction	1	(3)
1.2 Growth Mechanisms	4	(2)
1.3 Comparisons of Epitaxial Growth Processes	6	(5)
References	11	(2)
CHAPTER 2 Growth Apparatus Design and Safety Considerations	13	(38)
F. Alexandre
J. L. Benchimol
2.1 Introduction	13	(1)
2.2 System Configuration	14	(7)
2.2.1 System Design Considerations	14	(2)
2.2.2 Sample Loading Chamber	16	(1)
2.2.3 Growth Chamber	17	(3)
2.2.4 Gas Handling System	20	(1)
2.3 Pumping System	21	(5)
2.3.1 Static Pumps	23	(2)
2.3.2 Dynamic Pumps	25	(1)
2.4 Source Injectors	26	(5)
2.4.1 Low-Temperature Injector	26	(2)
2.4.2 High-Temperature Injector	28	(3)
2.4.3 Evaporation Cell for Solid Sources	31	(1)
2.5 Source Control and Switching	31	(9)
2.5.1 Mass Flow Control with Carrier Gas	32	(3)
2.5.2 Mass Flow Control without Carrier Gas	35	(1)
2.5.3 Pressure Control	36	(3)
2.5.4 Source Switching	39	(1)
2.6 Safety Systems	40	(5)
2.6.1 Hazards of Gas Sources	41	(1)
2.6.2 Safety Considerations in Equipment Design	41	(1)
2.6.3 Gas Detection	42	(1)
2.6.4 Safety Interlocking	42	(1)
2.6.5 Exhaust Treatment	43	(1)
2.6.6 Safe Experimental Procedures	44	(1)
2.7 Future System Developments	45	(2)
2.7.1 Substrate Stage	45	(1)
2.7.2 Common Low-Temperature Injector	46	(1)
2.7.3 Multiwafer Scale-up	47	(1)
2.8 Conclusions	47	(1)
References	48	(3)
CHAPTER 3 Precursors for Chemical Beam Epitaxy	51	(22)
D. A. Bohling
3.1 Introduction	51	(2)
3.2 Review of CBE Precursors	53	(15)
3.2.1 Group III Sources for III-V Compound Semiconductors	53	(7)
3.2.2 Group V Sources for III-V Compound Semiconductor CBE	60	(6)
3.2.3 Dopant Sources for Compound Semiconductor CBE	66	(1)
3.2.4 Chemical Precursors for Silicon and Silicon Dioxide CBE	67	(1)
3.3 Conclusions	68	(1)
Acknowledgements	69	(1)
References	69	(4)
CHAPTER 4 Reaction Mechanisms for III-V Semiconductor Growth by Chemical Beam Epitaxy: Physical Origins of the Growth Kinetics and Film Purities Observed	73	(20)
J. S. Foord
4.1 Introduction	73	(1)
4.2 An Approach to the Determination of CBE Growth Mechanisms	74	(2)
4.2.1 The Chemical Nature and Fluxes of Species Impinging on to and Leaving the Growth Surface	75	(1)
4.2.2 Structure, Composition and Adsorbates at the Growth Surface	75	(1)
4.2.3 Dynamic Surface Chemistry	75	(1)
4.3 The CBE Growth of GaAs from Triethylgallium	76	(5)
4.3.1 The Occurrence of a Threshold Growth Temperature	78	(1)
4.3.2 The Decrease in the Growth Rate at High Temperatures	79	(1)
4.3.3 Spill-over Effects in Carbon Incorporation	80	(1)
4.3.4 Variation in Growth Rate with III-V Ratio	81	(1)
4.4 Variation of Growth Rate with Semiconductor Matrix	81	(3)
4.5 Growth Kinetics Using Other Alkyl Precursors	84	(4)
4.6 Impurity Incorporation Mechanisms	88	(3)
4.7 Concluding Remarks	91	(1)
References	91	(2)
CHAPTER 5 Growth of GaAs-Based Devices by Chemical Beam Epitaxy	93	(36)
C. R. Abernathy
5.1 Introduction	93	(1)
5.2 Heterojunction Bipolar Transistors	94	(23)
5.2.1 HBT Structures	95	(1)
5.2.2 Growth of the Base	96	(6)
5.2.3 The AlGaAs Emitter	102	(3)
5.2.4 The InGaP Emitter	105	(4)
5.2.5 The Collector and Subcollector	109	(1)
5.2.6 Npn Device Results	110	(1)
5.2.7 Selective Epitaxial Growth of Extrinsic Contacts	110	(5)
5.2.8 Pnp HBTs	115	(2)
5.3 Field Effect Transistors	117	(4)
5.3.1 MESFETs	117	(1)
5.3.2 HEMTs	117	(4)
5.4 Optical Devices	121	(2)
5.5 Conclusions	123	(1)
References	123	(6)
CHAPTER 6 CBE InP-Based Materials and Devices	129	(34)
W. T. Tsang
T. H. Chiu
6.1 Introduction	129	(1)
6.2 System Design Considerations	130	(7)
6.2.1 Gas Injectors	132	(1)
6.2.2 Cryopanel	132	(2)
6.2.3 Pumping	134	(1)
6.2.4 Flow Rate Control	135	(2)
6.2.5 Growth Temperature Monitoring	137	(1)
6.3 Growth Mechanism	137	(5)
6.4 Progress in Material Growth	142	(5)
6.4.1 Binary Compound	142	(1)
6.4.2 Ternary and Quaternary Alloys	143	(2)
6.4.3 Gaseous Doping in InP-Based Materials	145	(2)
6.5 Progress in Devices	147	(13)
6.5.1 InGaAs/InGaAsP MQW Lasers and Modulators	147	(6)
6.5.2 Strained InAsP MQW Lasers and Modulators	153	(2)
6.5.3 InP/InGaAsP/InGaAs Avalanche Photodiodes	155	(1)
6.5.4 Monolithic Integrated Photoreceivers	156	(2)
6.5.5 InGaAsP-based Electronic Devices	158	(2)
References	160	(3)
CHAPTER 7 MOMBE of Antimonides and Growth Model	163	(36)
H. Asahi
7.1 Introduction	163	(1)
7.2 MOMBE Growth System	164	(1)
7.3 MOMBE of GaAs and GaSb and Growth Model	165	(16)
7.3.1 Use of TEGa, As(4) and Sb(4) and Growth Model	165	(7)
7.3.2 Use of TEGa, TESb, and TEAs	172	(2)
7.3.3 Use of TEGa, TDMASb, and TDMAAs: Etching Effect	174	(4)
7.3.4 Substrate Orientation Dependence	178	(3)
7.4 AlSb and AlGaSb Growth	181	(5)
7.4.1 Growth with TIBAL	181	(2)
7.4.2 Growth with TMAAL	183	(3)
7.5 III-III-V Alloy Growth	186	(1)
7.5.1 InGaAs	186	(1)
7.5.2 InGaSb	186	(1)
7.6 III-V-V Alloy Growth	187	(4)
7.6.1 InAsSb	187	(3)
7.6.2 GaAsSb	190	(1)
7.7 Selective Growth	191	(3)
7.7.1 Growth on SiO(2) Masked Substrate	191	(2)
7.7.2 Growth on Patterned Substrate	193	(1)
7.8 Concluding Remarks	194	(1)
References	195	(4)
CHAPTER 8 Chemical Beam Epitaxy of Widegap II-VI Compound Semiconductors	199	(32)
A. Yoshikawa
8.1 Introduction	199	(1)
8.2 CBE of Widegap II-VI Compounds	200	(14)
8.2.1 Growth of Zn- and Cd-Based Binary II-VI Compounds	201	(8)
8.2.2 Growth of (Zn,Cd,Mg)(S,Se) Ternary and Quaternary II-VI Compounds and Novel Structures	209	(5)
8.3 Growth Mechanism in CBE of ZnSe and CdSe	214	(9)
8.3.1 An in situ Optical Probing Method Suitable for CBE of II-VI Compounds	214	(5)
8.3.2 Surface Reaction Models in CBE of ZnSe and CdSe	219	(4)
8.4 Impurity Doping and Device Applications	223	(5)
8.4.1 p-Type Doping	223	(2)
8.4.2 n-Type Doping	225	(1)
8.4.3 Blue/green LDs and LEDs	226	(2)
8.5 Summary	228	(1)
References	229	(2)
CHAPTER 9 Gas Source Molecular Beam Epitaxy of Silicon and Related Materials	231	(48)
Y. Shiraki
9.1 Introduction	231	(1)
9.2 Equipment for Silicon Gas Source MBE	232	(2)
9.3 Growth Mechanisms	234	(5)
9.4 Growth of SiGe Alloys	239	(16)
9.4.1 Formation and Control of SiGe Alloys	239	(3)
9.4.2 Surface Segregation	242	(4)
9.4.3 Surfactant-Mediated Growth and Segregant-Assisted Growth (SAG)	246	(5)
9.4.4 Critical Thickness	251	(2)
9.4.5 Ge Composition Dependence	253	(2)
9.5 Growth of SiC	255	(2)
9.6 Doping	257	(3)
9.7 Formation of Si/Ge Heterostructures	260	(7)
9.7.1 Band Structures of Si/Ge Heterostructures	260	(3)
9.7.2 Formation of Superlattices and Quantum Wires	263	(4)
9.8 Selective Growth	267	(3)
9.9 Device Applications of GSMBE	270	(4)
Acknowledgements	274	(1)
References	274	(5)
CHAPTER 10 Gas Source Molecular Beam Epitaxy	279	(20)
L. Goldstein
10.1 Introduction	279	(1)
10.2 Safety Aspects of GSMBE	280	(2)
10.2.1 Organometallic Low-Pressure Group V Sources	280	(1)
10.2.2 Hydride Generator	281	(1)
10.3 Growth of the Quaternary InGaAsP	282	(6)
10.3.1 Influence of Group III Composition	282	(1)
10.3.2 Influence of Growth Rate and Temperature	283	(1)
10.3.3 Immiscibility Growth of GaInAsP on InP	284	(4)
10.4 Growth of Strain Layer Quantum Wells in the InGaAsP System	288	(6)
10.4.1 Interface Control of GaInAsP/InP QW	288	(1)
10.4.2 Strained Layer Multiquantum Wells (InGaAsP)	289	(1)
10.4.3 Compressive Strained Quantum Wells (InGaAsP)	290	(2)
10.4.4 Tensile Strained Quantum Wells (InGaAsP)	292	(1)
10.4.5 Strain Compensated Layers	292	(2)
10.5 Multistep Epitaxy with GSMBE	294	(3)
References	297	(2)
CHAPTER 11 Dopants and Dopant Incorporation	299	(32)
T. Whitaker
T. Martin
11.1 Introduction	299	(1)
11.2 Solid Dopant Sources	300	(1)
11.3 Gaseous Dopant Sources	301	(1)
11.4 Carbon Doping in GaAs/AlGaAs	302	(11)
11.4.1 Carbon Doping with TMGa	303	(1)
11.4.2 Hydrogen Passivation	303	(1)
11.4.3 Halomethane Sources	304	(3)
11.4.4 Carbon Doping in the Presence of TDMAAs	307	(6)
11.5 Mg, Zn, and Be as p-Type Dopants for GaAs/AlGaAs	313	(1)
11.6 n-Type Dopants for GaAs/AlGaAs	313	(4)
11.6.1 Silicon	313	(1)
11.6.2 Tin	313	(2)
11.6.3 Sulphur	315	(2)
11.7 p-Type Doping of InGaAs/InP	317	(2)
11.8 Carbon doping of InGaAs	319	(4)
11.9 n-Type Doping of InGaAs/InP	323	(1)
11.10 Semi-insulating InP by Fe Doping	324	(1)
11.11 Antimonides	325	(1)
11.12 Conclusions	326	(1)
References	326	(5)
CHAPTER 12 Selected Area Epitaxy	331	(64)
H. Heinecke
G. J. Davies
12.1 Introduction	331	(2)
12.2 Growth Techniques	333	(11)
12.2.1 Molecular Beam Epitaxy	333	(2)
12.2.2 Metal Organic Vapour Phase Epitaxy	335	(8)
12.2.3 Chemical Beam Epitaxy/Metal Organic Molecular Beam Epitaxy	343	(1)
12.3 Surface Reaction Mechanisms of Selected Area Epitaxy	344	(11)
12.3.1 The Influence of the Group III Species in Selected Area Epitaxy	345	(4)
12.3.2 The Influence of Group V Species in Selected Area Epitaxy	349	(6)
12.4 The Surface Selective Growth Process in CBE/MOMBE	355	(29)
12.4.1 Surface Orientation Dependence	355	(5)
12.4.2 Planar Selective Area Epitaxy	360	(15)
12.4.3 Embedded Selective Area Epitaxy	375	(9)
12.5 Devices Fabricated Using SAE by CBE/MOMBE	384	(7)
Acknowledgements	391	(1)
References	391	(4)
CHAPTER 13 Chemical Beam Etching	395	(20)
W. T. Tsang
T. H. Chiu
13.1 Introduction	395	(1)
13.2 In situ Etching Technologies	396	(1)
13.3 Chemical Beam Etching of GaAs and InP	397	(6)
13.3.1 Monolayer Control	397	(2)
13.3.2 Surface Chemistry	399	(3)
13.3.3 Etching Kinetics	402	(1)
13.4 Surface Morphology	403	(5)
13.4.1 Continuous Etching	403	(2)
13.4.2 Pulsed Etching	405	(3)
13.5 Etch Cleaning	408	(2)
13.6 Patterned Etch and Regrowth	410	(2)
13.7 Summary	412	(1)
References	413	(2)
CHAPTER 14 Laser-Assisted Epitaxy	415	(22)
H. Sugiura
14.1 Introduction	415	(5)
14.1.1 Background of Photoassisted Epitaxy	415	(1)
14.1.2 Current Status of Photoassisted Epitaxy	416	(1)
14.1.3 Apparatus for Laser-Assisted CBE	417	(2)
14.1.4 Laser Irradiation Effects	419	(1)
14.2 Experimental Results	420	(4)
14.2.1 Binary Epilayers	420	(1)
14.2.2 InGaAs	421	(3)
14.3 InGaAsP	424	(3)
14.3.1 InGaAsP MQW	424	(3)
14.4 Optical Device Applications	427	(7)
14.4.1 Two-Wavelength Laser Diode Array	428	(2)
14.4.2 Multiple-wavelength Laser Diode Array	430	(2)
14.4.3 Photodetector for Multiple Wavelengths	432	(2)
14.5 Summary	434	(1)
References	434	(3)
Index	437