Chemistry of the Environment

by Bailey; Clark; Ferris; Krause; Strong

• ISBN13: 9780120734610
• ISBN10: 0120734613
• Edition: 2nd
• Format: Hardcover
• Copyright: 2002-03-21
• Publisher: Elsevier Science

Summary

Emphasizing new science essential to the practice of environmental chemistry at the beginning of the new millennium, this book describes the atmosphere as a distinct sphere of the environment and the practice of industrial ecology as it applies to chemical science. It includes extensive coverage of nuclear chemistry, covering both natural environmental sources and anthropogenic sources, their impacts on health, and their role in energy production, that goes well beyond the newspaper coverage to discuss nuclear chemistry and disposal in a balanced and scientifically rational way. * This is the only environmental chemistry text to adequately discuss nuclear chemistry and disposal in a balanced and scientifically rational way. * The overall format allows for particular topics to be omitted at the discretion of the instructor without loss of continuity. * Contains a discussion of climate history to put current climate concerns in perspective, an approach that makes current controversy about climate change more understandable.

Table of Contents

Preface	xix
About the Authors	xxiii
Introduction
General	1	(1)
Pollution and Environmental Problems	2	(2)
Waste Disposal	4	(2)
Risk	6	(1)
Energy	7	(1)
Population	7	(3)
The Scope of Chemistry of the Environment	10	(3)
Additional Reading	11	(2)
Atmospheric Composition and Behavior
Introduction	13	(2)
Gasseous Constituents of the Atmosphere	15	(5)
History of the Atmosphere	20	(4)
Evidence and General Theory	20	(2)
Carbon Dioxide	22	(1)
Nitrogen	23	(1)
Oxygen	23	(1)
Particulate Constituents of the Atmosphere	24	(2)
Extent of the Atmosphere and its Temperature and Pressure Profile	26	(4)
General Circulation of the Atmosphere	30	(5)
Conclusion	35	(4)
Additional Reading	36	(1)
Exercises	36	(3)
Energy and Climate
Energy Balance of the Earth	39	(10)
Incoming Radiation from the Sun	39	(5)
The Greenhouse Effect	44	(3)
Other Factors	47	(2)
Climate History of the Earth	49	(4)
Causes of Global Climate Changes	53	(10)
General Comments	53	(2)
The Milankovitch Theory of Earth's Orbital Variations	55	(1)
Greenhouse Effect Changes	56	(3)
Albedo Changes	59	(2)
Computer Models	61	(2)
Small-Scale Climate	63	(2)
Temperature Inversions	65	(4)
Conclusions	69	(4)
Additional Reading	70	(1)
Exercises	70	(3)
Principles of Photochemistry
Introduction	73	(2)
Electromagnetic Radiation	75	(8)
Properties of Light	75	(2)
Absorption of Light	77	(6)
Kinetics of Thermal Processes	83	(4)
Kinetics of Photochemical Processes	87	(4)
Additional Reading	89	(1)
Exercises	89	(2)
Atmospheric Photochemistry
Introduction	91	(2)
Reactions in the Upper Atmosphere	93	(33)
Nitrogen	93	(2)
Oxygen	95	(5)
Ozone	100	(25)
Water in the Atmosphere	125	(1)
Photoprocesses in the Troposphere: Photochemical Smog	126	(21)
The General Nature of Smog	126	(3)
Nitrogen Oxides (NOx) in the Absence of Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs)	129	(6)
Reactions in Urban Atmospheres Containing Volatile Organic Compounds	135	(5)
Summary of Photochemical Smog	140	(2)
Additional Reading	142	(1)
Exercises	143	(4)
Petroleum, Hydrocarbons, and Coal
Introduction	147	(1)
The Nature of Petroleum	148	(2)
Sources of Crude Oil and Hydrocarbons in Marine Environments	150	(8)
Introduction	150	(1)
Natural Sources	151	(1)
Offshore Wells	152	(1)
Industrial and Municipal Waste	153	(1)
Transportation	154	(1)
Catastrophic Oil Spills	155	(3)
Fate of an Oil Spill	158	(6)
Weathering of an Oil Spill	160	(1)
Cleaning Up Oil Spills	161	(3)
Effects of Crude Oil on Marine Life	164	(4)
Fish	165	(1)
Clams, Mussels, and Other Invertebrates	165	(1)
Birds	165	(1)
Sea Otters and Other Marine Mammals	166	(1)
Sea Turtles	167	(1)
Use of Petroleum in the Internal Combustion Engine	168	(2)
Sources of Hydrocarbons and Related Compounds in the Atmosphere	170	(9)
Introduction	170	(1)
Hydrocarbons and Other Emissions from Automobiles	171	(4)
The Catalytic Converter	175	(2)
Gasoline Additives: Tetraalkyllead, Ethanol, and Methyl tert-Butyl Ether	177	(2)
The Air Pollution Problem in Urban Centers	179	(3)
Plans to Reduce Auto Emissions in Urban Centers	180	(1)
Low-Emission Automobiles	181	(1)
Coal	182	(11)
Coal Formation and Structure	182	(2)
Coal Gasification	184	(3)
Coal Liquefaction	187	(2)
Additional Reading	189	(1)
Exercises	190	(3)
Soaps, Synthetic Surfactants, and Polymers
Introduction	193	(2)
Soaps and Synthetic Surfactants	195	(12)
Soaps	196	(1)
Detergents	197	(1)
Surfactants	198	(3)
Microbial Metabolism of Hydrocarbons, Soaps, and Synthetic Surfactants	201	(5)
Environmental Effects of Biodegradable Organic Compounds: Biological Oxygen Demand	206	(1)
Polymers	207	(11)
Polymer Synthesis	210	(2)
Paper	212	(1)
The Fate of Polymers after Use	213	(1)
Environmental Degradation of Polymers	214	(3)
Biodegradation	217	(1)
Conclusions	218	(5)
Additional Reading	219	(1)
Exercises	219	(4)
Haloorganics and Pesticides
Introduction	223	(1)
Environmental Degradation	224	(1)
Chemistry of Chlorinated Organic Compounds	225	(6)
Synthesis	225	(2)
Reactions	227	(4)
Microbial Degradation of Organics	231	(3)
Reductive Degradation	232	(1)
Oxidative Degradation	233	(1)
Hydrolytic Degradation	234	(1)
Toxicity	234	(4)
Environmental Hormones	235	(3)
Chlorofluorocarbons, Hydrofluorocarbons, and Perhalogenated Organics	238	(6)
Structural Types	239	(1)
Atmospheric Lifetimes	239	(5)
Polychlorinated and Polybrominated Biphenyls	244	(7)
Environmental Problems	245	(1)
Toxicity	245	(2)
Chemical Synthesis and Reactivity	247	(2)
Microbial Degradation	249	(2)
DDT and Its Degradation Products	251	(7)
Synthesis	252	(1)
Environmental Degradation	253	(1)
Mechanism of Action of DDT and DDT Analogues as Pesticides	254	(1)
Chronic Toxicity of DDT and Related Compounds	255	(3)
Other Chloroorganic Pesticides	258	(7)
Lindane	258	(2)
Polychlorinated Cyclodienes	260	(5)
Herbicides: 2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic Acid and 2,4,5-Trichlorophenoxyacetic Acid	265	(5)
Introduction	265	(1)
Synthesis	265	(1)
Environmental Degradation	266	(4)
Organophosphorus Insecticides	270	(4)
Introduction	270	(1)
Synthesis	271	(2)
Toxicity	273	(1)
Environmental Degradation	273	(1)
Resistance: The Bugs Fight Back	274	(2)
Biochemical Methods of Insect Control	276	(9)
Phermones	277	(3)
Insect Attractants	280	(1)
Hormones	281	(2)
Viruses and Bacteria	283	(2)
Integrated Pest Management	285	(2)
Proposed Phaseout of All Chlorine-Containing Compounds	287	(8)
Additional Reading	288	(3)
Exercises	291	(4)
Chemistry in Aqueous Media
Water in the Environment	295	(12)
The Water Cycle	295	(3)
Structure and Properties of Water	298	(6)
Solubility	304	(2)
Acid-Base Behavior	306	(1)
Acid-Base Reactions	307	(12)
General Behavior	307	(4)
Carbonic Acid	311	(6)
pH and Solubility	317	(2)
Effects of Temperature and Pressure Effects on Equilibrium	319	(1)
Oxidation-Reduction Processes	320	(4)
Coordination Chemistry	324	(16)
General Aspects of Coordination Chemistry	324	(1)
Coordination Number and Geometry	325	(2)
Metal-Ligand Preferences	327	(2)
Water as a Ligand	329	(1)
Complex Stability and Lability	330	(3)
Some Applications of Complexing	333	(2)
Complexing in Natural Systems	335	(5)
Colloidal Material	340	(1)
Adsorption and Ion Exchange	341	(2)
Conclusion	343	(4)
Additional Reading	344	(1)
Exercises	344	(3)
The Environmental Chemistry of Some Important Elements
Introduction	347	(7)
The Carbon Cycle, CO2, and Carbonates	354	(8)
Nitrogen	362	(8)
Sulfur and the Sulfur Cycle	370	(5)
Phosphorus, Fertilizers, and Eutrophication	375	(4)
Biologically Important Metals and Other Elements	379	(33)
Introduction	379	(3)
Alkaline Earth Metals: Beryllium, Magnesium, Calcium, Strontium, and Barium	382	(1)
Iron	383	(5)
Chromium	388	(1)
Manganese	389	(1)
Copper	389	(1)
Zinc, Cadmium, and Mercury	390	(9)
Boron	399	(1)
Aluminum	399	(1)
Tin and Lead	400	(5)
Arsenic	405	(2)
Selenium	407	(2)
The Halogens	409	(3)
Summary	412	(3)
Additional Reading	412	(1)
Exercises	413	(2)
Water Systems and Water Treatment
Composition of Water Bodies	415	(2)
Model Ocean Systems	417	(4)
Residence Times	421	(1)
Acid Rain	422	(3)
Water Treatment	425	(14)
Domestic Water Treatment	427	(5)
Wastewater Treatment	432	(7)
Anaerobic Systems	439	(1)
Irrigation Waters	440	(3)
Additional Reading	441	(1)
Exercises	442	(1)
The Earth's Crust
Rocks and Minerals	443	(6)
Recovery of Minerals from Their Ores	449	(11)
Sources	449	(5)
Ore Treatment	454	(2)
Bacterial Mining	456	(1)
Iron	457	(1)
Aluminium	458	(1)
Gold	459	(1)
Soils	460	(13)
Soil Formation and Composition	460	(9)
Contaminated Soils	469	(4)
Nonmetallic Materials from the Earth	473	(10)
Stone	473	(1)
Clay-Based Materials	474	(1)
Glass	475	(1)
Cements	476	(1)
Asbestos	477	(4)
Additional Reading	481	(1)
Exercises	482	(1)
Properties and Reactions of Atomic Nuclei, Radioactivity, and Ionizing Radiation
Introduction	483	(1)
The Atomic Nucleus	484	(5)
Composition, Types, and Selected Properties	484	(4)
Physicochemical Effects of Nuclear Mass and Spin	488	(1)
Energetics of Nuclear Reactions	489	(5)
The Kinetics of Nuclear Reactions	494	(10)
Radioactive Decay	494	(8)
Induced Nuclear Reactions	502	(2)
Modes and Energetics of Radioactive Decay	504	(12)
Gamma Ray Emission, Internal Conversion, and Isomeric Transition	505	(3)
Beta Decay	508	(6)
Alpha Decay	514	(1)
Other Modes of Decay	515	(1)
Selected Induced Nuclear Reactions	516	(6)
Charged-Particle Reactions	516	(1)
Photonuclear Reactions	517	(1)
Nuclear Fission	517	(4)
Nonfission Neutron Production	521	(1)
Interaction of Ionizing Radiation With Matter	522	(13)
Charged Particles	522	(7)
X Rays and Gamma Rays	529	(4)
Neutrons	533	(1)
Linear Energy Transfer	534	(1)
Effects of Ionizing Radiation on Biological Cells	535	(2)
Classification of Health Effects of Ionizing Radiation	537	(1)
Units of Exposure and Dose for Ionizing Radiation	538	(6)
Exposure	538	(1)
Dose	539	(5)
Estimation of Exposure Rate from Gamma-Ray Sources	544	(2)
Estimation of Dose Rate Based on Source Characteristics	546	(1)
Gamma Radiation	546	(1)
Beta Radiation	546	(1)
Alpha Radiation	547	(1)
Specific Health Effects	547	(3)
External Sources of X and Gamma Radiation	547	(2)
Internal Sources	549	(1)
Correlation between Dose and Effect	550	(11)
High-Level Dose	550	(2)
Low-Level Dose	552	(1)
Additional Reading	553	(1)
Exercises	554	(7)
The Nuclear Environment
Introduction	561	(1)
Cosmic Radiation	562	(2)
Naturally Occurring Sources of Radioactivity in the Environment	564	(1)
Distribution of Naturally Occurring Radioactivity in the Environment	565	(17)
Rocks and Soils	565	(2)
Uranium and Thorium Ores	567	(1)
The Atmosphere	568	(10)
Water	578	(2)
Food	580	(1)
Materials Used for Building Construction	581	(1)
Applications of Naturally Occurring Stable Nuclides and Radionuclides to the Study of Earth and Its Environment	582	(7)
Types of Application	582	(1)
Isotope Fractionation	583	(2)
Radiometric Methods for Age Determination	585	(4)
Summary of Examples of Nuclides Used and Types of Application	589	(1)
Special-Purpose Sources of Ionizing Radiation in the Environment: Types and Applications	589	(17)
Sources Used for Structural Analysis of Solids, Radiography, Diagnostic Imaging, and Medical Therapy	593	(2)
Sources Used in Nuclear Medicine	595	(4)
Multifarious Sources	599	(7)
Nuclear Fission Power Plants	606	(17)
Types of Nuclear Power Reactor	607	(1)
Nuclear Fuel	608	(1)
Nuclear Fuel Requirements	609	(2)
Types of Nuclear Power Plant	611	(6)
Safety Features of Nuclear Power Plants	617	(3)
Effluents from Nuclear Power Plants	620	(2)
Advanced Nuclear Power Plants for the Future	622	(1)
Natural Fission Reactors (The Oklo Phenomenon)	623	(1)
Thermonuclear Power Plants	624	(2)
Cold Fusion	626	(1)
Nuclear Weapons	627	(8)
Types	627	(1)
Production	627	(3)
Testing	630	(1)
Fallout and Rainout	631	(1)
Proliferation	632	(2)
A Cold War Heritage: Weapons-Grade Plutonium and Weapons-Grade Uranium	634	(1)
Radioactive Waste	635	(16)
Types and Sources	635	(2)
Methods of Disposal	637	(11)
The Cold War Mortgage	648	(3)
Pathways for Internal Exposure to Ionizing Radiation	651	(4)
Dose of Ionizing Radiation Received by the U.S. Population	655	(4)
Dose from External Exposure	655	(1)
Dose from Internal Exposure	655	(2)
Average Annual Dose	657	(2)
Regulatory Limits for Radiation Dose Received by Radiation Workers and the General Population	659	(2)
Examples of Accidents and Incidents Involving the Release of Radionuclides into the Environment	661	(26)
Therapy and Gauging Sources	661	(2)
Nuclear Reactors	663	(15)
Radioactive Waste	678	(1)
Nuclear Fuel Processing Plant	679	(1)
Additional Reading	680	(3)
Exercises	683	(4)
Energy
Introduction	687	(2)
Thermodynamic Considerations	689	(5)
The First and Second Laws of Thermodynamics	689	(5)
Units of Energy and Power	694	(1)
Fossil Fuels	694	(7)
Introduction	694	(2)
Liquid Hydrocarbon Fuels	696	(1)
Coal	697	(1)
Natural Gas	698	(1)
Synthesis of Methane from Coal	699	(2)
Nuclear Energy	701	(9)
Nuclear Power and the Environment	701	(1)
Status of Nuclear Power	701	(4)
Factors Affecting the Choice of Nuclear Energy for the Generation of Electricity in the United States	705	(2)
Costs	707	(3)
Solar Energy	710	(18)
Introduction	710	(1)
Biological Utilization of Solar Energy: Biomass	711	(2)
Physical Utilization of Solar Energy	713	(8)
Photoelectric Utilization of Solar Energy	721	(4)
Photoelectrochemical Utilization of Solar Energy	725	(3)
Geothermal Energy	728	(2)
Wind and Water	730	(7)
Introduction	730	(1)
Wind Energy Conversion	730	(3)
Water Energy Conversion	733	(4)
Energy Storage	737	(13)
Introduction	737	(3)
Physical Energy Storage	740	(1)
Chemical Energy Storage	741	(9)
Direct Generation of Electricity from Fuels	750	(4)
The Energy Future	754	(15)
The United States of America	754	(2)
The Rest of the World	756	(5)
Conclusions	761	(1)
Additional Reading	762	(3)
Exercises	765	(4)
Solid Waste Disposal and Recycling
Introduction	769	(3)
Landfills	772	(3)
Composting	775	(2)
Anaerobic Digestion of Biological Wastes	777	(1)
Incineration	777	(4)
The Tire Problem	781	(2)
Recycling	783	(10)
Glass	783	(1)
Paper	784	(1)
Metal	785	(1)
Plastics	786	(5)
Additional Reading	791	(2)
APPENDIX A DESIGNATION OF SPECTROSCOPIC STATES	793	(8)
A.1 Introduction	793	(1)
A.2 Atoms	793	(3)
A.3 Diatomic Molecules	796	(3)
A.4 Polyatomic Molecules	799	(2)
Additional Reading	800	(1)
APPENDIX B THORIUM AND ACTIUM SERIES	801	(4)
Appendix C UNITS	805	(2)
APPENDIX D SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS	807	(4)
Index	811