Chemistry

by Gilbert, Thomas R.; Kirss, Rein V.; Davies, Geoffrey

• ISBN13: 9780393975314
• ISBN10: 0393975312
• Format: Hardcover
• Copyright: 2003-06-01
• Publisher: W W Norton & Co Inc

Summary

Just as the value of reading becomes clear to a child after hearing a good story, so the value of chemistry becomes clear to students when they see how it can help them understand the world around them. Chemistry: The Science in Context tells a story, beginning with the creation of the universe and proceeding through the "evolution of matter," from the formation of subatomic particles, to atomic structure, to the formation of natural and synthetic polymers. Throughout, the chemistry skills, concepts, and facts standard to the general chemistry course are introduced, but within the context of broader scientific questions and societal applications. Once students grasp the relevance of chemistry to their other science courses and to their own lives, their understanding of chemistry improves. Chemistry is truly the central science?let your students discover it with Chemistry: The Science in Context.

Table of Contents

Preface	xxi
Acknowledgments	xxvii
To the Student	xxix
Matter and Its Origins	1	(53)
Classes and Properties of Matter	2	(7)
Creation of Matter	9	(2)
The Scientific Method	9	(1)
The Big Bang	10	(1)
Light Waves	11	(12)
The Electromagnetic Spectrum	12	(6)
Wavelength, Frequency, and Energy	18	(2)
Shifting Wavelengths and the Doppler Effect	20	(3)
Measurements in Scientific Studies	23	(8)
SI Units	23	(1)
Significant Figures	24	(6)
Precision and Accuracy	30	(1)
Matter and Energy	31	(4)
Radioactive Decay	31	(2)
Radioactive-Decay Rates	33	(1)
The Formation of Nuclei	34	(1)
Temperature Scales and a Cooling Universe	35	(19)
Then Came Atoms	37	(5)
Cold Microwaves	42	(1)
Continuum Radiation	42	(4)
Chapter Review	46	(3)
Questions and Problems	49	(5)
Nuclear Chemistry and the Origins of the Elements	54	(50)
Hydrogen Fusion	55	(3)
Nuclear Binding Energies	58	(4)
Neutron Capture and Modes of Radioactive Decay	62	(5)
Supernova: Radiochemistry of the Heaviest Elements	67	(7)
Artificial Isotopes and Elements	74	(4)
Measuring Radioactivity	78	(2)
Biological Effects of Radiation	80	(9)
Ionizing Radiation and Living Matter	80	(1)
Radiation Dosage	81	(2)
Assessing the Risks of Radiation	83	(3)
Radiation Therapy	86	(1)
Box: The Chemistry of Radon, Radium, and Uranium	86	(1)
Medical Imaging with Radionuclides	87	(2)
Radiochemical Dating	89	(4)
The Composition of the Universe	93	(11)
Chapter Review	95	(2)
Questions and Problems	97	(7)
Electrons and Electromagnetic Radiation	104	(56)
The Fraunhofer Lines	105	(1)
Electrons in Atoms	106	(4)
Particles of Light	110	(2)
The Bohr Model of the Hydrogen Atom	112	(6)
Matter Waves	118	(4)
Schrodinger's Wave Equation	122	(1)
Quantum Numbers	123	(3)
Shapes and Sizes of Atomic Orbitals	126	(5)
Spinning Electrons	131	(1)
The Periodic Table and Filling in the Orbitals	132	(12)
Box: The Chemistry of the Noble Gases	134	(10)
More Evidence for the Existence of Atomic Orbitals	144	(4)
Ionization Energies	144	(2)
X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy	146	(2)
The Uncertainty Principle	148	(12)
Chapter Review	151	(4)
Questions and Problems	155	(5)
Stoichiometry and the Formation of Earth	160	(48)
The Composition of Earth	162	(2)
The Composition of Compounds	164	(2)
Naming Compounds	166	(7)
Binary Molecular Compounds	166	(1)
Binary Ionic Compounds	167	(2)
Binary Compounds of Transition Metals	169	(1)
Polyatomic Ions	169	(4)
Chemical Reactions and the Mole	173	(8)
Box: The Chemistry of the Alkali Metals	178	(3)
Completing and Balancing Chemical Equations	181	(3)
Percent Composition and Empirical Formulas	184	(6)
Stoichiometric Calculations and the Carbon Cycle	190	(3)
Limiting Reactants and Percent Yields	193	(15)
Chapter Review	198	(2)
Questions and Problems	200	(8)
Solution Chemistry and the Hydrosphere	208	(76)
Earth: The Water Planet	209	(5)
Solution Concentration and Molarity	214	(7)
Electrolytes and Nonelectrolytes	221	(3)
Colligative Properties of Solutions	224	(17)
Osmosis and Osmotic Pressure	224	(6)
Boiling-Point Elevation and Freezing-Point Depression	230	(6)
The van't Hoff Factor	236	(2)
Measuring Molar Mass	238	(3)
Introduction to Oxidation--Reduction Processes	241	(9)
Oxidation Numbers	244	(2)
Balancing Redox Reactions	246	(4)
Acid-Base Reactions and Net Ionic Equations	250	(7)
Box: The Chemistry of the Alkaline Earth Metals	254	(3)
Precipitation Reactions	257	(6)
Ion Exchange	263	(3)
Titrations	266	(3)
Colloids	269	(15)
Chapter Review	271	(4)
Questions and Problems	275	(9)
Chemical Bonding and Atmospheric Molecules	284	(48)
Introduction	285	(1)
Electron Sharing	286	(3)
Lewis Structures	289	(3)
Unequal Sharing	292	(1)
Electronegativity and Other Periodic Properties of the Elements	293	(5)
More Lewis Structures	298	(13)
The Structure of Ozone	299	(4)
Resonance	303	(2)
Holes in the Ozone Layer	305	(2)
Box: The Chemistry of the Halogens	307	(4)
Choosing between Lewis Structures: Formal Charges	311	(4)
Electron Diffraction, Bond Lengths, and Predictions Confirmed	315	(1)
Molecular-Orbital Theory	316	(16)
The Molecular Orbitals of H2	316	(2)
Nitrogen and Oxygen	318	(4)
Ultraviolet and Visible Spectra and Auroras	322	(2)
Chapter Review	324	(3)
Questions and Problems	327	(5)
Molecular Shape and the Greenhouse Effect	332	(54)
Bond Vibration and Climate Change	334	(6)
Infrared Spectropscopy	340	(3)
Exceptions to the Octet Rule	343	(8)
Box: The Chemistry of Oxygen and the Group 6A Elements	348	(3)
The Molecular-Orbital Diagram of Nitric Oxide	351	(1)
Electron-Spin Resonance: Locating Unpaired Electrons	352	(2)
Molecular Shape: The VSEPR Model	354	(9)
Tetrahedra of Electrons	355	(2)
Triangles of Electrons	357	(1)
Linear Molecular Geometry	358	(1)
Shapes of Expanded-Octet Molecules	359	(3)
Summary	362	(1)
Valence-Bond Theory	363	(8)
Hybrid Orbitals	364	(4)
Hybrid Orbitals for Beryllium and Boron	368	(3)
Polar Bonds and Polar Molecules	371	(5)
Molecular Vibration and Infrared Absorption	376	(10)
Chapter Review	376	(3)
Questions and Problems	379	(7)
Properties of Gases and the Air That We Breathe	386	(50)
Introduction	388	(4)
The Atmosphere: A Molecular View	392	(8)
Boyle's Law	392	(4)
The Combined Gas Law	396	(4)
The Ideal-Gas Law	400	(3)
Gas Density	403	(3)
Dalton's Law and Mixtures of Gases	406	(4)
Henry's Law and the Solubility of Gases	410	(7)
Box: The Chemistry of the Group 5A Elements	414	(3)
The Kinetic Molecular Theory of Gases and Graham's Law	417	(5)
Real Gases	422	(14)
Chapter Review	425	(3)
Questions and Problems	428	(8)
Intermolecular Forces and Liquids: Water, Nature's Universal Solvent	436	(30)
Sea Spray and the States of Matter	437	(2)
Ion-Ion Interactions and Lattice Energy	439	(6)
Interactions of Polar Molecules	445	(1)
Dispersion Forces	446	(1)
Polarity and Solubility	447	(3)
Vapor Pressure	450	(4)
Vapor Pressure of Solutions: a Molecular View	451	(1)
Vapor Pressure and Solute Concentration	452	(1)
Vapor Pressure and Temperature	452	(2)
Phase Diagrams: Intermolecular Forces at Work	454	(3)
The Remarkable Behavior of Water	457	(9)
Chapter Review	461	(2)
Questions and Problems	463	(3)
The Solid State: A Molecular View of Gems and Minerals	466	(44)
Crystal Lattices	467	(5)
Crystalline versus Amorphous	468	(1)
X-Ray Diffraction	469	(3)
The Unit Cell	472	(4)
Packing Efficiency	476	(8)
Cubic Closest Packing	477	(4)
Simple Cubic Packing	481	(1)
Hexagonal Closest Packing	482	(2)
Network Solids: The Many Forms of Silica	484	(5)
Orthosilicates	486	(2)
Metasilicates	488	(1)
Allotropes of Carbon and Sulfur	489	(2)
Metallic Bonds and Structures	491	(3)
Box: The Chemistry of the Group 4A Elements	492	(2)
Gemstones: An Introduction to Crystal Field Theory	494	(16)
Crystal Field Splitting Energy	495	(5)
Magnetic Properties	500	(2)
Chapter Review	502	(2)
Questions and Problems	504	(6)
Thermochemistry and the Quest for Energy	510	(46)
An Historical Perspective	511	(2)
Energy: Some Definitions	513	(2)
Natural Gas	515	(3)
Combustion and Energy Transfer	518	(5)
Enthalpy (H) and Enthalpy Changes (ΔH)	523	(1)
Heating Curves and Heat Capacity	524	(7)
Hot Soup on a Cold Day	525	(3)
Cold Drinks on a Hot Day	528	(3)
Estimating ΔH from Average Bond Energies	531	(4)
Calorimetry: Measuring Heats of Combustion	535	(2)
Enthalpies of Formation and Reaction	537	(3)
Fuel Values	540	(2)
Hess's Law	542	(14)
Chapter Review	546	(3)
Questions and Problems	549	(7)
Energy and Organic Chemistry	556	(54)
Petroleum Refining: Fractional Distillation and Raoult's Law	558	(4)
Alkanes in Gasoline and Structural Isomerism	562	(9)
Cycloalkanes	564	(2)
Structural Isomerism and Octane Ratings	566	(1)
Rules for Naming Alkanes	567	(4)
Aromatic Hydrocarbons	571	(2)
Alcohols, Ethers, and Reformulated Gasoline	573	(3)
Carbohydrates	576	(10)
Molecular Structures of Glucose and Other Sugars	577	(5)
Condensation Reactions	582	(1)
Starch and Cellulose	583	(3)
More Fuels from Biomass	586	(4)
Carboxylic Acids	587	(1)
Amines	588	(2)
Coal	590	(1)
Hydrogen As Fuel	591	(2)
Combustion Analysis and Elemental Composition	593	(3)
Alkanes and Alkynes	596	(14)
Chapter Review	600	(3)
Questions and Problems	603	(7)
Entropy and Free Energy and Fueling the Human Engine	610	(60)
Enthalpies of Solution	612	(4)
Entropy and Why Endothermic Processes Take Place	616	(5)
Entropy Calculations	621	(1)
Free Energy	622	(8)
Connecting ΔH and Delta;S	624	(4)
The Meaning of Free Energy	628	(2)
Fueling the Human Engine	630	(15)
Carbohydrates Revisited	630	(1)
Amino Acids and Proteins	631	(4)
Stereoisomerism	635	(5)
Box: The Chemistry of Group 5B	640	(2)
Lipids	642	(3)
The Energy Values of Carbohydrates, Fats, and Proteins	645	(3)
Driving the Human Engine	648	(7)
Box: The Chemistry of Group 7B	650	(5)
DNA and Making Proteins	655	(15)
Chapter Review	661	(3)
Questions and Problems	664	(6)
Chemical Kinetics and Air Pollution	670	(60)
Photochemical Smog	671	(2)
Reaction Rates	673	(6)
Average Reaction Rates and the Formation of NO	675	(2)
Instantaneous Reaction Rates and the Formation of NO2	677	(2)
Effect of Concentration on Reaction Rate	679	(18)
Reaction Order and Initial Rates	679	(5)
The Single-Experiment Approach	684	(6)
Second-Order Reactions	690	(7)
Reaction Mechanisms	697	(7)
Box: The Chemistry of the Group 8B Metals	701	(3)
Reaction Rates, Temperature, and the Arrhenius Equation	704	(8)
Catalysis	712	(18)
Chapter Review	717	(2)
Questions and Problems	719	(11)
Chemical Equilibrium and Why Smog Persists	730	(50)
Achieving Equilibrium	732	(4)
Equilibrium Constants and Reaction Quotients	736	(7)
Reactions in Reverse	739	(1)
K and Q for Combined Equations	740	(2)
Multiplying a Chemical Equation by a Constant	742	(1)
Equilibrium in the Gas Phase and Kp	743	(4)
K, Q, and Delta;G	747	(3)
Le Chatelier's Principle	750	(6)
Box: The Chemistry of Ammonia	754	(2)
The Role of Catalysts	756	(1)
Calculations Based on K	757	(6)
Changing K with Changing Temperature	763	(4)
Heterogeneous Equilibria	767	(13)
Chapter Review	769	(3)
Questions and Problems	772	(8)
Equilibrium in the Aqueous Phase and Acid Rain	780	(62)
Acid Rain and Acid Strength	782	(8)
Weak and Strong Acids	782	(4)
Diprotic Acids	786	(4)
Acids and Bases: A Molecular View	790	(7)
Acids in Water	790	(2)
Bases in Water	792	(2)
Lewis Acids and Bases	794	(1)
Conjugate Pairs	795	(2)
Acid Strength and Molecular Structure	797	(4)
Box: The Chemistry of Two Strong Acids: Sulfuric and Nitric Acids	798	(3)
The Concept of pH	801	(5)
The pH Scale	803	(1)
The pH of ``Natural'' and Acid Rain	803	(2)
pOH	805	(1)
The pH of Solutions of Acidic and Basic Salts	806	(5)
Buffer Solutions and the pH of Natural Waters	811	(5)
Acid-Base Indicators	816	(1)
Acid-Base Titrations	817	(7)
Solubilities of Minerals and Other Compounds	824	(1)
Complex Ions	824	(18)
Complexation and Solubility	828	(4)
Metal Complexes in Biomolecules	832	(2)
Chapter Review	834	(2)
Questions and Problems	836	(6)
Electrochemistry and Electrical Energy	842	(50)
Voltaic Cells	843	(4)
Voltage and Free Energy	847	(3)
The Chemistries of Some Common Batteries	850	(6)
Dry Cells	850	(2)
Alkaline Batteries	852	(1)
Nickel-Cadmium Batteries	853	(3)
Standard Potentials and Batteries for Laptops	856	(7)
Cell Potentials	856	(1)
A Reference Point: The Standard Hydrogen Electrode	857	(3)
Nickel-Metal Hydride Batteries	860	(2)
Lithium-Ion Batteries	862	(1)
The Effect of Concentration on Potential	863	(8)
Box: The Chemistry of the Group 2B Elements	864	(7)
Quantities of Reactants and Battery Power	871	(2)
Electrolytic Cells and Recharging Batteries	873	(5)
``Low Emission'' Vehicles and More Voltaic Devices	878	(14)
Hybrid Vehicles	879	(1)
Fuel Cells	879	(2)
Photochemical Cells	881	(1)
Biochemical Fuel Cells	882	(1)
Chapter Review	883	(2)
Questions and Problems	885	(7)
Materials Chemistry: Past, Present, and Future	892	(2)
Metals	894	(24)
The Age of Copper	894	(4)
Box: The Chemistry of the Group 1B Elements	898	(3)
The Bronze Age	901	(3)
The Iron Revolution	904	(5)
Aluminum Alloys: Lightweight and High-Performance	909	(1)
Box: The Chemistry of Group 3A Elements: Boron, Aluminum, Gallium, Indium, and Thallium	910	(6)
Box: The Chemistry of Group 4B Metals: Ti, Zr, and Hf	916	(2)
Ceramics	918	(8)
Made of Clay	918	(1)
Making Ceramics	919	(2)
Superconducting Ceramics	921	(2)
Box: The Chemistry of Group 3B and the Lanthanides	923	(3)
Semiconductors	926	(3)
Fibers for Clothing and Other Uses	929	(11)
Natural Fibers	929	(4)
Synthetic Polymers from Condensation Reactions	933	(3)
Synthetic Polymers from Addition Reactions	936	(4)
The Scientific Method Revisited	940	(1)
Chapter Review	941	(1)
Questions and Problems	942
Appendix 1: Mathematical Procedures	1	(4)
Appendix 2: SI Units and Conversion Factors	5	(2)
Appendix 3: The Elements and Their Properties	7	(8)
Appendix 4: Chemical Bonds and Thermodynamic Data	15	(7)
Appendix 5: Equilibrium Constants	22	(5)
Appendix 6: Standard Reduction Potentials	27	(3)
Photo Credits	30	(3)
Glossary	33	(12)
Answers to In-Chapter Questions and Problems	45	(12)
Answers to Selected End-of-Chapter Questions and Problems	57	(39)
Index	96