Church History Vol. 1 : From Christ to Pre-Reformation - The Rise and Growth of the Church in Its Cultural, Intellectual, and Political Context

by Everett Ferguson

• ISBN13: 9780310205807
• ISBN10: 0310205808
• Format: Hardcover
• Copyright: 2005-06-03
• Publisher: Zondervan

Summary

Church History offers a unique contextual view of how the Christian church spread and developed. It did so not in a vacuum, but in a setting of times, cultures, and events that both influenced and were influenced by the church. Church History looks closely at the integral link between the history of the world and that of the church. Volume one explores the development of the church from the days of Jesus to the years prior to the Reformation. Filled with maps, charts, and illustrations, it offers overviews of the Roman, Greek, and Jewish worlds; insights into the church's relationship to the Roman empire, with glimpses into pagan attitudes toward Christians; the place of art and architecture, literature and philosophy, both sacred and secular; and much more, spanning the time from the first through the thirteenth centuries. Volume One Content Overview 1. The Setting for the Story's Beginning 2. Jesus and the Beginnings of the Church 3. The Subapostolic Age 4. The Church and the Empire 5. Heresies and Schisms of the Second Century 6. The Defense Against Rival Interpretations 7. The Fathers of the Old Catholic Church and Their Problems 8. Church Life in the Second and Third Centuries 9. Development of the Church During the Third Century 10. Diocletian and Constantine: On the Threshold of the Fourth Century 11. The Church in the Fourth Century: Doctrine, Organization, and Literature 12. The Church in the Fourth and Early Fifth Centuries: Monasticism, Expansion, Life, and Worship 13. Christological Controversies to Chalcedon 14. Augustine, Pelagius, and Semipelagianism 15. Transitions to the Middle Ages: Germanic Migrations, Doctrinal Developments, and the Papacy 16. Eastern and Western Churches in the Fifth and Sixth Centuries 17. The Eastern Church from the Seventh to Eleventh Centuries 18. The Western Church from the Seventh to Ninth Centuries 19. Decline and Renewal of Vitality in the West: The Ninth to Eleventh Centuries 20. The Papal Reform Movement and the First Crusade 21. Intellectual Revival: The Rise of Scholasticism 22. Monastic, Literary, Political, and Cultural Activities in the Twelfth Centuries 23. The Glory of the Western Medieval Church: The Thirteenth Century 24. Portents of Decline

Table of Contents

Maps, Charts, and Illustrations	19	(6)
Preface	25	(2)
The Setting for the Story's Beginning
The Roman World	27	(1)
The Greek World	28	(1)
The Jewish World	29	(3)
For Further Study	31	(1)
Jesus and the Beginnings of the Church
The Ministry of Jesus	32	(2)
The Church in Jerusalem and James	34	(2)
The Church in Antioch	36	(1)
Paul	36	(2)
The Church in Rome and Peter	38	(2)
The Church in Ephesus and John	40	(2)
The Church in Syria and Thomas	42	(1)
Church Life in the Apostolic Age	43	(3)
For Further Study	44	(2)
The Subapostolic Age
Strands of Jewish Christianity	46	(3)
Ebionites	47	(1)
Nazoraeans	48	(1)
Elkesaites	48	(1)
Other Jewish Influences	49	(1)
Literature and Problems in Gentile Christianity	49	(15)
The Apostolic Fathers	50	(8)
Apocryphal Literature	58	(3)
Other Writings	61	(1)
Limitations and Value of This Literature	62	(1)
For Further Study	63	(1)
The Church and the Empire
Attitudes toward Christians	64	(4)
Attitudes of Early Emperors	64	(2)
Attitudes of Pagans toward Christians	66	(2)
The Legal Basis of the Persecutions	68	(3)
Christian Apologists of the Second Century	71	(8)
Writings	71	(2)
Justin Martyr as a Representative Apologist	73	(2)
The Logos Doctrine	75	(2)
Summary of the Apologists	77	(2)
Martyrs of the Second Century	79	(7)
The Literature of Martyrdom	79	(3)
Motifs of Martyrdom	82	(3)
For Further Study	85	(1)
Heresies and Schisms in the Second Century
Marcion	86	(3)
Gnosticism	89	(12)
Sources for Study	90	(1)
Question of Origins	90	(2)
Components of Gnosticism	92	(1)
Common Features of the Gnostic Myths	93	(1)
Principal Teachers	94	(4)
Sample Gnostic Myths of Creation and Salvation	98	(1)
Doctrinal Errors and Significance of Gnosticism	98	(2)
Lessons from the Struggle with Gnosticism	100	(1)
Montanism	101	(2)
Encratism	103	(1)
Did Heresy Precede Orthodoxy?	104	(3)
For Further Study	105	(2)
The Defense against Rival Interpretations
Monepiscopacy and Apostolic Succession	107	(2)
Rule of Faith and Apostles' Creed	109	(3)
The Biblical Canon	112	(11)
The Old Testament Canon	112	(2)
The New Testament Canon	114	(5)
Criteria of Canonicity	119	(2)
Theological Reflections	121	(1)
For Further Study	122	(1)
The Fathers of the Old Catholic Church and Their Problems
Beginnings and Early Development of Christian Theology	123	(15)
Irenaeus	124	(2)
Tertullian and the Church in North Africa	126	(3)
The Church in Alexandria and Clement of Alexandria	129	(3)
Origen in Alexandria and Caesarea	132	(4)
Hippolytus and Callistus in Rome	136	(2)
The Rise to Prominence of the Church at Rome	138	(2)
Problems Facing the Old Catholic Fathers	140	(8)
Paschal Controversy	140	(2)
Patripassianism	142	(3)
Persecution	145	(1)
Penance and Polity	145	(2)
For Further Study	147	(1)
Church Life in the Second and Third Centuries
Christian Initiation	148	(3)
Christian Assemblies	151	(3)
Christian Life	154	(2)
Christian Women	156	(1)
Christian Hope	157	(3)
For Further Study	159	(1)
Development of the Church during the Third Century
Persecutions	160	(3)
Principal Phases	160	(1)
The Decian and Valerian Persecutions	161	(1)
The Cult of the Martyrs	162	(1)
Cyprian and Schism	163	(5)
The Beginnings of Christian Art and Architecture	168	(3)
A New Challenge: Manichaeism	171	(1)
The Church in the Later Third Century	172	(3)
Church Order: Didascalia	173	(1)
Theology: The Two Dionysii	173	(1)
Missions: Gregory Thaumaturgus	174	(1)
Literature: Methodius, Lactantius	175	(1)
Why Did Christianity Succeed?	175	(3)
For Further Study	177	(1)
Diocletian and Constantine: On the Threshold of the Fourth Century
The Persecution under Diocletian	178	(3)
Reorganization of the Empire	178	(1)
The Course of the Persecution	179	(2)
Constantine the Great	181	(6)
Interpretation	181	(1)
Conversion and Favor for Christians	182	(3)
The New Situation in Church-State Relations	185	(2)
Eusebius of Caesarea: The Emperor's Historian	187	(1)
The Donatist Schism	187	(4)
Arius and the Council of Nicaea	191	(8)
Background of the Arian Controversy	191	(2)
Events Leading to Nicaea	193	(1)
The Council of Nicaea, 325	193	(3)
The Importance of Nicaea	196	(1)
For Further Study	197	(2)
The Church in the Fourth Century: Doctrine, Organization, and Literature
The Arian Controversy after Nicaea	199	(11)
From 325 to 361	199	(5)
Athanasius	204	(2)
From 361 to 381	206	(2)
The Council of Constantinople, 381	208	(2)
Organization of the Church	210	(2)
The Fathers of the Nicene and Post-Nicene Church	212	(13)
Basil the Great of Caesarea	214	(1)
Gregory of Nazianzus	215	(1)
Gregory of Nyssa	216	(1)
John Chrysostom	217	(2)
Ephraem the Syrian	219	(1)
Ambrose	220	(2)
Rufinus	222	(1)
Jerome	222	(3)
The Importance of the Bible	225	(2)
For Further Study	226	(1)
The Church in the Fourth and Early Fifth Centuries: Monasticism, Expansion, Life, and Worship
Monasticism	227	(7)
Origins	227	(3)
Motifs of Monasticism	230	(2)
Early Leaders	232	(2)
Missionary Expansion in the Fourth and Fifth Centuries	234	(4)
Syria	234	(1)
Persia	235	(1)
Armenia	235	(1)
Georgia	236	(1)
Ethiopia	237	(1)
Christian Life and Society	238	(6)
Imperial Support of Christianity	239	(1)
Christian Influence on the Roman World	240	(1)
Negative Factors in the Late Empire	241	(1)
Pious Practices	242	(2)
Worship	244	(11)
The Liturgy of Baptism and Eucharist	244	(3)
Sacraments	247	(5)
The Church Calendar	252	(1)
Basilicas and Art	253	(1)
For Further Study	254	(1)
Christological Controversies to Chalcedon (451)
An Overview of the First Four Ecumenical Councils	255	(1)
Rivalries between Alexandria and Antioch	256	(2)
Preliminary Phase, 362--81: Apollinarianism	258	(1)
The Second Phase, 381--433: Nestorianism	258	(3)
The Council of Ephesus (431) and Its Aftermath	261	(2)
The Third Phase, 433--51: Eutychianism	263	(1)
The Council of Chalcedon, 451	264	(4)
Dogmatic Aspects	265	(1)
Conciliar Aspects	266	(1)
Monastic Aspects	266	(1)
Constitutional Aspects	266	(1)
For Further Study	267	(1)
Augustine, Pelagius, and Semipelagianism
Augustine	268	(11)
Life (354--430)	268	(3)
Writings	271	(3)
Controversy with Donatists	274	(2)
Controversy with Pelagians	276	(3)
Pelagius and Celestius	279	(3)
Semipelagianism	282	(4)
For Further Study	284	(2)
Transitions to the Middle Ages: Germanic Migrations, Doctrinal Developments, and the Papacy
When Did the Middle Ages Begin?	286	(2)
The Migration of Nations in the West	288	(1)
Christian Missions among the Goths	289	(2)
Movements of Specific Peoples	291	(7)
The Vandals and North Africa	291	(1)
The Visigoths (West Goths) and Spain	291	(2)
The Suevians	293	(1)
The Burgundians	294	(1)
The Franks	294	(1)
The Ostrogoths (East Goths) and Italy	295	(2)
The Lombards and Italy	297	(1)
Effects of the Barbarian Invasions	298	(2)
The Christian Literary Response to the Invasions	298	(1)
Effects on Society	298	(1)
Effects on the Churches	299	(1)
The Later Stages of the Augustinian-Pelagian Controversy	300	(1)
The Development of the Papacy: Fourth and Fifth Centuries	301	(5)
Fourth and Fifth Centuries before Leo the Great	301	(2)
Leo the Great and Gelasius	303	(2)
For Further Study	305	(1)
Eastern and Western Churches in the Fifth and Sixth Centuries
Theological Developments in the East before Justinian	306	(4)
The Age of Justinian (527--65) in the East	310	(7)
Military-Civil Achievements	310	(1)
Religio-Political Policy	311	(3)
Christian Culture of the Period of Justinian	314	(3)
Benedict of Nursia, the ``Patriarch of Western Monasticism''	317	(2)
Gregory the Great, the First Monkish Pope	319	(2)
The Development of Liturgy	321	(2)
The Differences between the Eastern and Western Churches	323	(4)
For Further Study	326	(1)
The Eastern Church from the Seventh to Eleventh Centuries
The Age of Heraclius and the Monothelete Controversy	327	(4)
Paulicians	331	(1)
The Impact of Islam	332	(4)
Muhammad and His Christian Background	332	(1)
Muslim Expansion	333	(2)
The Christian Response to Islam	335	(1)
The Iconoclastic Controversy	336	(6)
The Photian Schism	342	(1)
The Flowering of the Middle Byzantine Church	343	(5)
Missionary Expansion	348	(4)
The Coptic Church	352	(1)
For Further Study	352	(1)
The Western Church from the Seventh to Ninth Centuries
Celtic and Anglo-Saxon Christianity	353	(7)
Early History of Christianity in Britain and Ireland	353	(2)
The Mission of Augustine to England	355	(1)
Developments in Northumbria	356	(4)
Anglo-Saxon Missions on the Continent	360	(3)
Their Strategy	360	(1)
Willibrord (658--739)	361	(1)
Winfrid (673--754)	361	(2)
The Age of Charlemagne in the West	363	(12)
Charlemagne's Predecessors: Pippin and the Papacy	363	(2)
Military-Missionary Expansion under Charlemagne (768--814)	365	(2)
Ecclesiastical Organization and Practices under Charlemagne	367	(3)
The Establishment of Schools and the Intellectual Renaissance	370	(2)
Theological Developments and Controversies	372	(1)
Charlemagne's Coronation as Emperor	373	(2)
Later Carolingian Culture and Its Problems	375	(5)
Political Background	375	(2)
The Pseudo-Isidorian Decretals	377	(1)
Pope Nicholas I the Great (858--67)	378	(1)
Controversy over the Lord's Supper	378	(1)
Gottschalk and Predestination	379	(1)
Rabanus Maurus and John Scotus Eriugena	379	(1)
Summary	380	(2)
For Further Study	381	(1)
Decline and Renewal of Vitality in the West: The Ninth to Eleventh Centuries
The ``Dark Ages''	382	(4)
Invaders from Scandinavia	382	(1)
The Decline of the Papacy	383	(1)
Missionary Counterattack	384	(2)
Monastic Revival: Cluny	386	(5)
Protection and Autonomy	386	(1)
Characteristics of Cluny	387	(1)
The Influence of Cluny	388	(2)
Related Developments	390	(1)
Imperial Revival	391	(3)
The Saxon Kings---the Ottonian Age	391	(2)
The Salian Dynasty and the Papacy	393	(1)
Papal Revival	394	(2)
The Schism between West and East (1054)	396	(4)
Differences between East and West	396	(1)
The Excommunications	397	(2)
For Further Study	399	(1)
The Papal Reform Movement and the First Crusade
The Papacy and Gregory VII	400	(2)
The Investiture Controversy	402	(8)
The Context of the Conflict	404	(2)
The Dispute between Gregory VII and Henry IV	406	(3)
The Final Settlement	409	(1)
The Sacrament of Penance	410	(1)
The First Crusade	410	(13)
The Devolution of the Idea of Holy War for Christians	411	(2)
The Preaching of the Crusade---Pope Urban II (1088--99)	413	(3)
The Crusaders and the Fighting	416	(2)
The Theological Aspect of Reunion	418	(1)
Results of the Crusade	418	(3)
For Further Study	421	(2)
Intellectual Revival: The Rise of Scholasticism
Aspects of Scholasticism	423	(3)
The Second Eucharistic Controversy	426	(3)
Theological Implications of the Controversy over Universals	429	(1)
Anselm of Canterbury (1033--1109)	430	(5)
Peter Abelard (1079--1142)	435	(4)
The Later History of Scholasticism	439	(2)
For Further Study	439	(2)
Monastic, Literary, Cultural, and Political Activities in the Twelfth Century
New Monastic Types	441	(4)
Renewed Monastic Vitality	441	(2)
Cistercians	443	(2)
Bernard of Clairvaux (1090--1153)	445	(3)
Other Important Thinkers of the Twelfth Century	448	(6)
Hugh of St. Victor (d. 1142)	448	(2)
Otto of Freising (c. 1114--58)	450	(1)
John Gratian (d. c. 1160)	450	(1)
John of Salisbury (c. 1115--80)	451	(1)
Peter Lombard (c. 1100--1160)	452	(1)
Hildegard of Bingen (1098--1179)	453	(1)
Non-Christian Thinkers	454	(1)
The Church and the Arts	454	(6)
Romanesque Architecture	454	(2)
Sculpture and Painting	456	(2)
Poetry and Music	458	(2)
Acts of Piety	460	(3)
Church and State in the Twelfth Century	463	(3)
Institutional Life of the Church	466	(1)
Some Developments in the Eastern Churches	466	(1)
Summary	467	(2)
For Further Study	468	(1)
The Glory of the Western Medieval Church: The Thirteenth Century
Innocent III (1198--1216)	469	(5)
View of the Papacy	469	(2)
Relations with the Empire and Frederick II	471	(1)
Relations with England	472	(1)
Fourth Crusade	473	(1)
Fourth Lateran Council	473	(1)
The Mendicant Religious Orders	474	(7)
Dominic (c. 1170--1221) and the Dominicans	475	(1)
Francis of Assisi (1182--1226) and the Franciscans	476	(4)
New Features of the Mendicant Orders	480	(1)
The Organization of Universities	481	(4)
Thomas Aquinas (1225--74)	485	(5)
Franciscan Alternatives to Thomas Aquinas	490	(3)
Popular Piety	493	(1)
Gothic Architecture and Art	494	(6)
Summary	500	(1)
For Further Study	500	(1)
Portents of Decline
Late Medieval Dissent: The Problem of Division	501	(7)
Samples of Earlier Heretical Teachers	502	(1)
Poverty and Penitential Movements	503	(1)
Waldenses	504	(1)
Cathari or Albigensians	505	(1)
Crusade and Inquisition	506	(2)
Philosophical Error	508	(1)
Women's Spirituality: The Problem of Comprehensiveness	508	(3)
The Jews: A Problem of Toleration	511	(1)
The Council of Lyons (1274): The Problem of Relations with the East	512	(2)
Leading Figures of the Time	512	(1)
Proceedings at the Council	513	(1)
Aftermath of the Council	514	(1)
Christianity on the Frontiers: Problems of Missions	514	(3)
Worship and Pastoral Care: A Problem in the Religious Life	517	(1)
Eschatology and Fanaticism: A Problem of Hope	518	(2)
Boniface VIII (1294--1303): The Problem of the National Monarchies	520	(3)
Boniface's Predecessor, Celestine V	520	(1)
Boniface VIII (1294--1303): ``Pride Goes before a Fall''	521	(2)
Aftermath	523	(1)
Summary	523	(2)
For Further Study	524	(1)
General Bibliography	525	(2)
Reference Works	525	(1)
Other Works	525	(2)
Indexes	527

Excerpts

Church History Volume 1: From Christ to Pre-Reformation
Copyright © 2005 by Everett Ferguson
Requests for information should be addressed to:
Zondervan, Grand Rapids, Michigan 49530
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Ferguson, Everett, 1933-
Church history / Everett Ferguson.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references.
ISBN-10: 0-310-20580-8 (v. 1)
ISBN-13: 978-0-310-20580-7
1. Church history—Textbooks. I. Title.
BR145.3.F47 2004
270—dc22 2004020348
This edition printed on acid-free paper.
Unless otherwise indicated, the photos were taken by and are the property of the author.
All Scripture quotations, unless otherwise indicated, are taken from the Holy Bible: New International Version
®. NIV®. Copyright © 1973, 1978, 1984 by International Bible Society. Used by permission of Zondervan.
All rights reserved.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted
in any form or by any means—electronic, mechanical, photocopy, recording, or any other—except
for brief quotations in printed reviews, without the prior permission of the publisher.
Interior design by Tracey Walker
Printed in the United States of America
05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 /?DCI/ 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
The Setting for the Story’s Beginning
Three concentric circles of influence circumscribed the world in
which early Christianity began. From the outside moving in, these
influences were the Roman, the Greek, and the Jewish. The pattern of
growth in the early church was the reverse, from the Jewish, to the
Greek, to the Roman worlds. Unlike the mathematical image, however,
these worlds were not sharply differentiated from each other, and the
boundaries were quite porous.
Nevertheless, the classification of influences is helpful in grasping
the environment in which the early church began. Moreover,
these influences remained formative for much of subsequent
Christian history.
I. THE ROMAN WORLD
Luke sets the story of Jesus and the early church firmly
within Roman history, noting Jesus’ birth under the emperor
Augustus, his ministry under Tiberius, and mentioning the
Roman governors and other officials with whom Jesus and later
Paul had encounters (Luke 2:1–2; 3:1; Acts 13:7; 18:12; 24:27).
Rome provided the larger governmental, military, and legal context
of early Christianity.
At the birth of Jesus, Rome had recently completed the transition
from the Republic to the imperial Principate under Augustus
(27 BC–AD 14). Not long before that, the Roman general
Pompey had conquered Palestine in 63 BC, and thereafter Rome
ruled the Jewish homeland, alternating various administrative arrangements
through which it exercised its will: legates based in Syria; client
kings like Herod the Great, during whose rule Jesus was born; and governors
like Pontius Pilate, under whom Jesus was crucified.
The organization of the empire seems to have provided a pattern
for the eventual development of the church’s hierarchy, and procedures
in the senate at Rome and at city councils influenced the conduct of
church synods.
The army—the legions made up of Roman citizens and the auxiliaries
composed of native peoples—was a constant presence on the
frontiers and in provinces where disturbances were frequent.
Among the peacetime duties of soldiers were the building of
roads and securing safety of travel; Christian travelers,
whether for business or religious purposes, used these roads
and carried the Christian message with them.
Roman law is one of Rome’s enduring legacies to the
Western world. When charges were brought against Christians,
Roman magistrates and Roman law decided their cases.
The imperial cult (the giving of divine honors to the emperor
and his family), often allied with the local civic cults, provided
an overarching religious cement to political unity and loyalty.
The imperial court ceremonials, themselves borrowed from
earlier eastern monarchs, continued under later Christian
emperors.
Latin not only was the official language of government,
but also became the common language in the western
provinces; from the second century and after, Christianity in
those regions expressed its message in Latin.
II. THE GREEK WORLD
Greek influences were predominant in language, education, literature,
and philosophy at the beginning of Christianity. For the early disciples,
the Greek language and culture were more significant than the
Latin, and they remained so for the eastern Mediterranean area under
the Byzantine empire (even though Latin remained its official language
of government for centuries). Since the conquests of Alexander the
Great in the fourth century BC, the Greek language, coinage, culture,
philosophy, and religion had permeated the regions from Greece around
the eastern coast of the Mediterranean to Libya. Education was based
on Homer and the Greek classics.
The Greek cultural influences were felt in Rome and regions to the
west, even among those who did not speak Greek. Greek was the language
of the church in Rome, it seems, until the middle of the third century.
Christian writers employed the Greek language exclusively, it
appears, until the late second century, when some works in Latin and
Syriac are known. Greek (and then Latin) rhetoric provided the standards
for how letters were written, speeches constructed, and arguments conducted.
The great philosophical systems of Plato and Aristotle had been
largely replaced in the Hellenistic age by philosophies more directed to
practical and moral interests, principally Stoicism and Epicureanism,
but interest in Aristotle and especially Plato revived in
the early Christian centuries. As Christian theology
developed from the affirmations of the gospel and the
early moral and doctrinal instruction, Greek philosophy
provided the vocabulary, ethical assumptions, thought
world, and intellectual options with which Christian
thinkers worked.
The traditional civic cults continued to be important
centers of local pride, and traditional religious attitudes
and practices continued to be nourished by the educational
curriculum that centered on Homer. Initiations
into mystery religions, visits to oracles and healing
shrines, acceptance of fate, belief in astrology, and the
practice of magic gained new strength during the first
two centuries of the Christian era.
The social lives of people were guided by a combination
of Roman legal and Greek societal norms. Thus in
matters as varied as customs at dinner parties, at weddings,
and at funerals, Christians lived within the framework
of existing ways of doing things. Laws of marriage and of
inheritance and established distinctions of social classes provided the
framework for family life and social relations.
Pre-existing mentalities shaped religious attitudes. Funerary customs
continued to be observed by Christians, although now within a
new frame of reference. Many of the features of Greco-Roman religion
became incorporated into Christianity as the gospel spread into the
pagan population.
III.

---

Excerpted from Church History: From Christ to Pre-Reformation - The Rise and Growth of the Church in Its Cultural, Intellectual, and Political Context by Woodbridge, Everett Ferguson
All rights reserved by the original copyright owners. Excerpts are provided for display purposes only and may not be reproduced, reprinted or distributed without the written permission of the publisher.