Classroom Assessment : Principles and Practice for Effective Instruction

by McMillan, James H.

• ISBN13: 9780205297511
• ISBN10: 020529751X
• Additional ISBN(s): 9780134523309
• Edition: 2nd
• Format: Paperback
• Copyright: 2000-05-01
• Publisher: Prentice Hall
• More Book Details
• Purchase Benefits

Summary

Classroom Assessmentembodies the notion that student evaluation is an integral part of teaching, not something merely done after instruction to measure what students have learned. The second edition is designed to provide prospective and practicing teachers with: (1) a concise presentation of principles that clearly and specifically relate assessment to instruction and to high-stakes accountability systems; (2) current research and new directions in the field of assessment; and (3) practical and realistic examples and suggestions. The book's emphasis is on helping teachers understand the importance of establishing credible performance standards, communicating these standards to students, and providing feedback to students on their progress.

Table of Contents

Preface	xiii
The Role of Assessment in Teaching	1	(22)
Integrating Instruction and Assessment	2	(7)
The Realities of Teaching	2	(3)
Instructional Decision Making and Assessment	5	(4)
What Is Classroom Assessment?	9	(3)
Purpose	9	(1)
Measurement	10	(1)
Evaluation	10	(1)
Use	11	(1)
Diagnosis	11	(1)
Grading	12	(1)
Instruction	12	(1)
Research on Learning, Motivation, and Instruction: Implications for Assessment	12	(2)
Recent Trends in Classroom Assessment	14	(3)
Teachers' Classroom Assessment and Grading Practices Decision Making	17	(1)
Assessment Standards for Teachers	18	(1)
Summary	19	(1)
What's Coming	20	(1)
Self-Instructional Review Exercises	20	(1)
Answers to Self-Instructional Review Exercises	21	(1)
Suggestions for Action Research	22	(1)
Establishing Learning Targets	23	(28)
What Are Learning Targets?	24	(15)
Educational Goals	24	(1)
Objectives	25	(3)
Standards-Based Education	28	(4)
Criteria	32	(4)
Expectations	36	(1)
Learning Targets	37	(2)
Types of Learning Targets	39	(2)
Knowledge and Simple Understanding Learning Targets	40	(1)
Deep Understanding and Reasoning Learning Targets	40	(1)
Skill Learning Targets	41	(1)
Product Learning Targets	41	(1)
Affective Learning Targets	41	(1)
Sources of Learning Targets	41	(6)
Bloom's Taxonomy of Objectives	42	(1)
Professional Preparation	43	(1)
Textbooks	44	(1)
Existing Lists of Objectives	44	(1)
National and State Standards	45	(2)
Criteria for Selecting Learning Targets	47	(1)
Summary	48	(1)
Self-Instructional Review Exercises	49	(1)
Answers to Self-Instructional Review Exercises	49	(1)
Suggestions for Action Research	50	(1)
Establishing High-Quality Classroom Assessments	51	(29)
What Is High-Quality Classroom Assessment?	52	(1)
Clear and Appropriate Learning Targets	53	(1)
Appropriateness of Assessment Methods	53	(6)
Types of Assessment Methods	53	(2)
Matching Targets with Methods	55	(1)
Knowledge and Simple Understanding	56	(1)
Deep Understanding and Reasoning	57	(1)
Skills	58	(1)
Products	58	(1)
Affect	58	(1)
Validity	59	(6)
What Is a Valid Assessment?	59	(1)
How Is Validity Determined?	59	(1)
Content-Related Evidence	60	(2)
Criterion-Related Evidence	62	(1)
Construct-Related Evidence	63	(2)
Reliability	65	(3)
Fairness	68	(4)
Student Knowledge of Learning Targets and Assessments	68	(1)
Opportunity to Learn	69	(1)
Prerequisite Knowledge and Skills	69	(1)
Avoiding Stereotypes	69	(1)
Avoiding Bias in Assessment Tasks and Procedures	70	(2)
Accomodating Special Needs	72	(1)
Positive Consequences	72	(1)
Positive Consequences on Students	72	(1)
Positive Consequences on Teachers	73	(1)
Practicality and Efficiency	73	(2)
Teacher Familiarity with the Method	74	(1)
Time Required	74	(1)
Complexity of Administration	74	(1)
Ease of Scoring	75	(1)
Ease of Interpretation	75	(1)
Cost	75	(1)
Summary	75	(1)
Self-Instructional Review Exercises	76	(2)
Answers to Self-Instructional Review Exercises	78	(1)
Suggestions for Action Research	78	(2)
Assessment before Instruction	80	(22)
Before School Begins: What Do You Know about Your Students?	81	(9)
School Records	81	(3)
Standardized Tests	84	(1)
Norm-Referenced Achievement Test Batteries	84	(2)
Criterion (Standards)-Referenced Achievement Tests	86	(1)
Aptitude Tests	87	(1)
Readiness Tests	88	(1)
State and District Achievement Tests	88	(1)
Uses of Standardized, State, and District Tests	88	(1)
Information Cards	89	(1)
After the First Week: Now What Do You Know about Your Students?	90	(4)
Informal Observation	90	(2)
Structured Exercises	92	(1)
Pretests	93	(1)
Teacher Expectations	94	(2)
High-Quality Preinstructional Assessment	96	(3)
Clear and Appropriate Learning Targets	96	(1)
Appropriateness of Assessment Methods	97	(1)
Validity	97	(1)
Reliability	98	(1)
Fairness	98	(1)
Positive Consequences	98	(1)
Practicality and Efficiency	98	(1)
Summary	99	(1)
Self-Instructional Review Exercises	99	(1)
Answers to Self-Instructional Review Exercises	100	(1)
Suggestions for Action Research	100	(2)
Assessing Student Progress during Instruction	102	(28)
Formative and Summative Assessment	104	(1)
Informal Observation	105	(8)
Assessing Nonverbal Behavior	105	(1)
Facial Expressions	106	(2)
Body Language	108	(1)
Assessing Voice-Related Cues	109	(3)
Sources of Error in Informal Observation	112	(1)
Using Questions to Assess Student Progress	113	(7)
Purposes of Questioning	114	(1)
Characteristics of Effective Questioning to Assess Student Progress	115	(5)
Providing Feedback and Praise	120	(5)
Characteristics of Effective Feedback	120	(3)
Characteristics of Effective Praise	123	(2)
Summary	125	(1)
Self-Instructional Review Exercises	125	(2)
Answers to Self-Instructional Review Exercises	127	(1)
Suggestions for Action Research	128	(2)
Assessing Knowledge and Simple Understanding: Completion, Short-Answer, and Selected-Response Items	130	(34)
Preparing for Summative Assessment	131	(5)
Representative Sampling	132	(1)
Length and Number of Assessments	132	(1)
Use of Assessments Provided by Textbook Publishers	133	(1)
Preparing Students for Summative Assessments	134	(1)
Scheduling the Summative Assessment	135	(1)
When Summative Assessments Should Be Constructed	135	(1)
Types of Knowledge and Understanding Targets	136	(3)
Knowledge Representation	136	(1)
Declarative Knowledge and Understanding	136	(2)
Procedural Knowledge and Understanding	138	(1)
Assessing Recall Knowledge	139	(13)
Completion and Short-Answer Items	139	(1)
Completion Items	139	(3)
Short-Answer Items	142	(2)
Matching Items	144	(2)
True/False and Other Binary-Choice Items	146	(3)
Multiple-Choice Items	149	(3)
Assessing Simple Understanding: Comprehension and Application	152	(4)
Assessing Comprehension	152	(2)
Assessing Application	154	(2)
Putting Tests Together	156	(3)
Preparing Test Directions	157	(1)
Arranging Items	157	(1)
Physical Layout of the Test	157	(2)
Summary	159	(1)
Self-Instructional Review Exercises	160	(1)
Answers to Self-Instructional Review Exercises	161	(2)
Suggestions for Action Research	163	(1)
Assessing Deep Understanding and Reasoning: Selected-Response, Short-Answer, and Essay Items	164	(31)
What Are Reasoning Skills?	165	(9)
Bloom's Taxonomy of the Cognitive Domain	166	(1)
Ennis's Taxonomy of Critical Thinking Dispositions and Abilities	167	(1)
Quellmalz and Hoskyn's Framework for Reasoning Strategies	167	(2)
Marzano's Dimensions of Learning	169	(5)
Assessing Reasoning and Deep Understanding	174	(16)
Short-Answer and Selected-Response Items	175	(1)
Short Answer	175	(1)
Binary Choice	175	(1)
Multiple Choice	175	(3)
Interpretive Exercises	178	(6)
Essay Items	184	(1)
Advantages and Disadvantages	184	(1)
Constructing Essay Items	185	(3)
Scoring Essays	188	(2)
Summary	190	(1)
Self-Instructional Review Exercises	191	(2)
Answers to Self-Instructional Review Exercises	193	(1)
Suggestions for Action Research	193	(2)
Assessing Deep Understanding, Reasoning, and Skills: Performance-Based Assessments	195	(38)
What Is Performance-Based Assessment?	196	(1)
Strengths and Limitations of Performance-Based Assessments	197	(2)
Learning Targets for Performance-Based Assessments	199	(6)
Skills	200	(1)
Communication and Presentation Skills	200	(2)
Psychomotor Skills	202	(1)
Products	203	(2)
Constructing Performance-Based Tasks	205	(11)
Restricted- and Extended-Type Performance-Based Tasks	206	(2)
Performance-Based Task Descriptions and Contexts	208	(1)
Performance-Based Task Question or Prompt	209	(7)
Scoring Criteria, Rubrics, and Procedures	216	(12)
Performance Criteria	216	(1)
Rating Scales	217	(4)
Rubrics	221	(2)
Developing Rubrics	223	(5)
Summary	228	(1)
Self-Instructional Review Exercises	229	(1)
Answers to Self-Instructional Review Exercises	230	(1)
Suggestions for Action Research	231	(2)
Using Portfolios to Assess Understanding, Reasoning, Skills, and Products	233	(27)
What Are Portfolios?	234	(4)
Advantages	236	(1)
Disadvantages	237	(1)
Planning for Portfolio Assessment	238	(5)
Purpose	239	(1)
Learning Targets	239	(1)
Uses	240	(1)
Identify Physical Structure	241	(1)
Determine Sources of Content	241	(2)
Determine Student Self-Reflective Guidelines and Scoring Criteria	243	(1)
Implementing Portfolio Assessment	243	(12)
Review with Students	243	(1)
Supplying Portfolio Content	244	(2)
Student Self-Evaluations	246	(3)
Teacher Evaluation	249	(1)
Checklists of Contents	249	(1)
Portfolio Structure Evaluation	249	(3)
Evaluations of Individual Entries	252	(1)
Evaluation of Entire Contents	252	(3)
Student-Teacher Conferences	255	(1)
Summary	255	(1)
Self-Instructional Review Exercises	256	(2)
Answers to Self-Instructional Review Exercises	258	(1)
Suggestions for Action Research	258	(2)
Assessing Affective Traits and Learning Targets	260	(35)
Are Affective Targets Important?	260	(2)
What Are Affective Traits and Learning Targets?	262	(9)
Attitude Targets	262	(3)
Value Targets	265	(1)
Motivation Targets	266	(1)
Academic Self-Concept Targets	266	(1)
Social Relationship Targets	267	(2)
Classroom Environment Targets	269	(1)
Affective Domain of the Taxonomy of Educational Objectives	270	(1)
Methods of Assessing Affective Targets	271	(20)
Teacher Observation	272	(1)
Unstructured Observation	273	(1)
Structured Observation	273	(3)
Student Self-Report	276	(1)
Student Interview	276	(2)
Questionnaires and Surveys	278	(1)
Constructed-Response Formats	279	(1)
Selected-Response Formats	280	(5)
Constructing Self-Report Items	285	(1)
Peer Ratings	286	(1)
Guess-Who Approach	286	(1)
Sociometric Approach	286	(2)
Which Method or Combination of Methods Should I Use?	288	(2)
Ensuring Anonymity	290	(1)
Summary	291	(2)
Self-Instructional Review Exercises	293	(1)
Answers to Self-Instructional Review Exercises	294	(1)
Suggestions for Action Research	294	(1)
Assessing Mainstreamed Students	295	(23)
Legal Mandates	295	(2)
Assessing Students for Identification	297	(5)
Steps before Identification	298	(1)
Identification	299	(1)
Mental Retardation	299	(1)
Sensory Impairment	300	(1)
Physical Impairment	300	(1)
Learning Disability	300	(1)
Emotional Disturbance	300	(2)
Assessment Problems Encountered by Students with Disabilities	302	(4)
Comprehension Difficulties	303	(1)
Auditory Difficulties	303	(1)
Visual Difficulties	304	(1)
Time Constraint Difficulties	305	(1)
Anxiety	305	(1)
Embarrassment	305	(1)
Variability of Behavior	305	(1)
Assessment Accommodations	306	(5)
Adaptations in Test Directions and Construction	306	(1)
Short-Answer and Essay Items	307	(1)
Multiple-Choice Items	308	(1)
Binary-Choice Items	308	(1)
Completion Items	308	(1)
Performance-Based Assessments	308	(1)
Portfolios	308	(1)
Adaptations in Test Administration	309	(2)
Adaptations in Testing Site	311	(1)
Grading and Reporting Accommodations	311	(3)
Grading Accommodations	311	(1)
IEP Grading	311	(1)
Shared Grading	312	(1)
Contracting	312	(1)
Reporting Accommodations	313	(1)
Summary	314	(1)
Self-Instructional Review Exercises	315	(1)
Answers to Self-Instructional Review Exercises	316	(1)
Suggestions for Action Research	317	(1)
Using Assessment for Grading and Reporting	318	(33)
Teachers' Judgments	318	(3)
Functions of Marking, Grading, and Reporting	321	(13)
Functions of Marking and Grading in the Classroom	322	(1)
Level of Detail Communicated	322	(1)
Factors Other Than Performance	322	(3)
Basis of Comparison	325	(4)
Approaches to Marking and Grading	329	(1)
Letter Grades	329	(1)
Percentage Correct	330	(2)
Pass-Fail	332	(1)
Checklists	332	(1)
Written Descriptions	333	(1)
Functions of Grading and Reporting Outside the Classroom	333	(1)
Determining Report Card Grades	334	(11)
Select What to Include in the Final Grade	334	(2)
Select Weights for Each Assessment	336	(1)
Combining Different Scores and Grades	337	(1)
Eyeball Method	337	(1)
Percent Correct Method	338	(3)
Total Points Method	341	(1)
Combining Relative Scores and Grades	342	(1)
Suggestions for Fair Grading	343	(2)
Reporting Student Progress to Parents	345	(2)
Written Information	345	(1)
Parent-Teacher Conferences	346	(1)
Summary	347	(1)
Self-Instructional Review Exercises	348	(1)
Answers to Self-Instructional Review Exercises	349	(1)
Suggestions for Action Research	350	(1)
Administering and Interpreting Standardized Tests	351	(32)
Fundamental Descriptive Statistics	352	(9)
Frequency Distributions	352	(1)
Measures of Central Tendency	352	(3)
Measures of Variability	355	(3)
Measures of Relationship	358	(1)
Scatterplot	358	(1)
Correlation Coefficient	359	(2)
Types of Derived Standardized Test Scores	361	(5)
Standard Scores	361	(1)
Z-Score	362	(1)
T-Score	362	(1)
Normal Curve Equivalent	362	(1)
Stanines	363	(1)
Developmental Standard Score	364	(1)
Deviation IQ and Standard Age Scores	364	(1)
Other Standard Scores	364	(1)
Grade Equivalent Scores	364	(2)
Interpreting Standardized Tests	366	(6)
Standard Error of Measurement	366	(1)
Interpretation of Norm-Referenced Standardized Tests	367	(1)
Types of Standardized Test Norms	367	(1)
Using Test Norms	368	(2)
Criterion (Standards)-Referenced Interpretations	370	(2)
Understanding Standardized Test Score Reports	372	(3)
Interpreting Test Reports for Parents	375	(2)
Preparing Students to Take Standardized Tests	377	(1)
Administering Standardized Tests	378	(1)
Summary	379	(1)
Self-Instructional Review Exercises	380	(1)
Answers to Self-Instructional Review Exercises	381	(1)
Suggestions for Action Research	382	(1)
References	383	(4)
Appendix A National Content Standards Projects	387	(2)
Appendix B The Scope of a Teacher's Professional Role and Responsibilities for Student Assessment	389	(3)
Appendix C Software Packages for Grading and Item Banking	392	(2)
Appendix D Glossary	394	(4)
Index	398