Climate Change and Managed Ecosystems

by Bhatti; Jagtar

• ISBN13: 9780849330971
• ISBN10: 0849330971
• Format: Hardcover
• Copyright: 2005-12-20
• Publisher: CRC Press

Summary

Featuring contributions from leading experts in the field, Climate Change and Managed Ecosystems examines the effects of global climate change on intensively constructed or reconstructed ecosystems, focusing on land use changes in relation to forestry, agriculture, and wetlands including peatlands. The book begins by discussing the fragility of ecosystems in the face of changing climates, particularly through human caused increases in atmospheric GHGs. The chapters delineate how and why the climate has changed and what can be expected to occur in the foreseeable future. They identify the potential adaptation responses to reduce the impacts of a changing climate.Using this information as a foundation, the chapter authors examine what is known about the impacts of climate on agricultural, forested, and wetland ecosystems. They illustrate the importance of these ecosystems in the global carbon cycle and discuss the potential interaction between terrestrial and atmospheric carbon pools under changing climactic conditions. The book delineates what needs to be done to ensure continued stability in these ecosystems. It includes a description of activities that have been undertaken in the past to identify gaps in understanding GHG emissions from agriculture, forests, and wetlands and their mitigation, as well as current research initiatives to address these gaps.The book presents an overview of how economic reasoning can be applied to climate change and illustrates how terrestrial carbon-uptake credits (offset credits) operate within the Kyoto Protocol framework. By identifying gaps in the current understanding of adaptation of mitigation strategies, the book underscores the need to make management of these ecosystems part of a global solution.

Table of Contents

PART I Climate Change and Ecosystems
Interaction between Climate Change and Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Managed Ecosystems in Canada	3	(14)
J.S. Bhatti
M.J. Apps
R. Lal
Introduction	3	(2)
Past and Future Climate Change	5	(2)
Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Agriculture, Forestry, and Wetland Ecosystems	7	(2)
Climate Change in Relation to Agriculture, Forestry, and Wetlands	9	(3)
Agricultural Ecosystems	9	(1)
Forest Ecosystems	9	(2)
Wetland/Peatland Ecosystems	11	(1)
Purpose of This Book	12	(1)
Summary and Conclusions	13	(4)
References	14	(3)
The Science of Changing Climates	17	(28)
H. Hengeveld
Introduction	18	(1)
Changing Climates --- The Past	19	(5)
Reconstructing and Observing Past Climates	19	(1)
Paleo Records	19	(1)
Recent Climate Observations Using Instrumentation	19	(1)
Major Climate Regimes of the Past 420, 000 Years	20	(1)
Climates of the 20th Century	21	(1)
Temperature Trends	21	(2)
Precipitation Trends	23	(1)
Other Climate-Related Trends	23	(1)
Causes of Past Climate Change	24	(8)
Climate System Energy Balance	24	(1)
Incoming Solar Energy	25	(1)
Outgoing Heat Radiation	25	(1)
Past Climate Forcings	26	(1)
Natural Climate Forcing Factors	26	(1)
Human Interference with the Climate System	27	(3)
Simulating Climate Forcings upon a Dynamic System	30	(1)
Attributing Recent Climate Change	31	(1)
Projected Climate Change for the Next Century	32	(6)
Future Climate Forcing Scenarios	32	(1)
Climate Model Projections	33	(1)
Temperature	33	(2)
Projected Changes in Precipitation	35	(1)
Permafrost	35	(1)
Severe Weather	35	(1)
Risks of Large-Scale Abrupt Changes in Climate	36	(2)
Summary and Conclusions	38	(7)
Acknowledgments	38
References	24	(21)
Impact of Climate Change on Agriculture, Forestry, and Wetlands	45	(26)
L.D. Mortsch
Introduction	45	(1)
Adapting to a Changing Climate	46	(1)
Projected Climate Changes for Canada	47	(1)
Observed Trends in Canada	48	(2)
Projected Impacts of Climate Change and Potential Adaptation Strategies	50	(11)
Forestry	50	(1)
Moisture Stress and Drought	50	(1)
Insects	51	(1)
Forest Fires	52	(2)
Agriculture	54	(1)
Crop Growth and Yields	54	(2)
Livestock and Forage Production	56	(1)
Drought	57	(1)
Agricultural Water Supply	58	(1)
Soil Erosion	59	(1)
Wetland Ecosystems	59	(1)
Evaporation Exceeds Precipitation	59	(1)
Altered Water Level Regime	60	(1)
Permafrost Melt	61	(1)
Summary and Conclusion	61	(10)
References	62	(9)
PART II Managed Ecosystems --- State of Knowledge
Anthropogenic Changes and the Global Carbon Cycle	71	(22)
J.S. Bhatti
M.J. Apps
R. Lal
Introduction	71	(1)
Global Carbon Cycle	72	(4)
Carbon Pools	72	(1)
Carbon Exchange	73	(3)
Land Use and Land-Use Change	76	(3)
CO2 Fertilization	79	(1)
NOX Fertilization and Ozone	80	(2)
Land Degradation	82	(2)
Soil Erosion	84	(1)
Wetland Drainage	85	(1)
Conclusion	86	(7)
References	88	(5)
Plant/Soil Interface and Climate Change: Carbon Sequestration from the Production Perspective	93	(34)
G. Hoogenboom
Introduction	94	(1)
Soil--Plant--Atmosphere and Climate Change	95	(3)
Precipitation	95	(1)
Temperature	96	(1)
Solar Radiation	97	(1)
Carbon Dioxide	98	(1)
Interaction	98	(1)
Carbon Sequestration	98	(3)
Photosynthesis	98	(1)
Crop Biomass	99	(1)
Roots	100	(1)
Uncertainty in Measurement of Climate Change Effects	101	(7)
Controlled Environments	102	(1)
Sunlit Chambers	103	(1)
Free-Air CO2 Enrichment	104	(1)
Experimental Case Study	104	(2)
Crop Simulation Models	106	(2)
Climate Change Impact	108	(3)
Modeling Case Study	109	(2)
Issues and Future Directions	111	(4)
Management Decisions and Potential Impact	111	(2)
Uncertainty in Benefits	113	(1)
Research Gaps	114	(1)
Stakeholders	115	(1)
Summary and Conclusions	115	(12)
References	116	(11)
Carbon Dynamics in Agricultural Soils	127	(22)
R. Lal
Introduction	127	(1)
Soil as Moderator of Earth's Climate	128	(6)
Soils and the Global Carbon Cycle	130	(2)
Soil Carbon Dynamics	132	(2)
Soil Carbon Sequestration	134	(4)
Aggregation	135	(1)
Illuviation	136	(1)
Secondary Carbonates	136	(2)
Technological Options of Carbon Sequestration in Agricultural Soils	138	(1)
Rates of Soil Carbon Sequestration	139	(2)
Measurement Issues Related to Soil Carbon Storage	139	(2)
Conclusions	141	(8)
References	141	(8)
Plant Species Diversity: Management Implications for Temperate Pasture Production	149	(14)
M.A. Sanderson
Introduction	149	(1)
Pasture Biodiversity	150	(2)
Plant Species Diversity in Pastures	151	(1)
Plant Diversity and Pasture Ecosystem Function	152	(1)
Evidence for Diversity Effects in Pastureland	152	(6)
Complex Forage Mixtures and Primary Productivity	152	(2)
Grazing Animal Productivity on Diverse Pasture Mixtures	154	(2)
Ecosystem Stability	156	(1)
Invasion by Exotic Species (Weeds and Pests)	156	(1)
Diversity and Nutrient Cycling in Forage Plant Communities	156	(1)
Mechanisms to Explain Diversity Effects in Forage Plant Communities	157	(1)
Conclusions and Recommendations	158	(5)
References	158	(5)
Net Ecosystem Carbon Dioxide Exchange over a Temperate, Short-Season Grassland: Transition from Cereal to Perennial Forage	163	(12)
V.S. Baron
D.G. Young
W.A. Dugas
P.C. Mielnick
C. La Bine
R.H. Skinner
J. Casson
Introduction	164	(1)
Methods	165	(1)
Net Ecosystem CO2 Exchange	165	(1)
Soil CO2 Flux	166	(1)
Results and Discussion	166	(6)
Climate	166	(1)
BREB CO2 Flux	166	(1)
Initial Growth Period	167	(1)
Regrowth	168	(1)
Grazing	168	(1)
Dormant Period	168	(1)
Spring	168	(1)
Diurnal CO2 Flux	169	(1)
Soil Respiration	170	(2)
Ecosystem Sink or Source	172	(1)
Conclusion	172	(3)
Acknowledgment	173	(1)
References	173	(2)
Forests in the Global Carbon Cycle: Implications of Climate Change	175	(26)
M.J. Apps
P.Y. Bernier
J.S. Bhatti
Introduction	175	(1)
Climate Change and the Global Carbon Cycle	176	(2)
Human Perturbations to the Global Carbon Cycle	178	(1)
Forest Sources and Sinks at the Stand and Landscape Scale	178	(6)
Land-Based Carbon Sink and Its Future	184	(1)
Mitigation Opportunities	185	(8)
Forest Management to Increase or Maintain Terrestrial Ecosystem Carbon	186	(1)
Managing Products and Services Derived from Forests for C Benefits	187	(3)
Forest Products as a Manageable Carbon Pool	190	(2)
Use of Forest Biomass for Bioenergy	192	(1)
Conclusions: The Global Forest Sector and the Global Carbon Cycle	193	(8)
Acknowledgments	195	(1)
References	196	(5)
Peatlands: Canada's Past and Future Carbon Legacy	201	(16)
D.H. Vitt
Introduction	201	(2)
Limitations on Carbon Sequestration in Boreal Peatlands	203	(1)
The Ecology of Boreal Peat Accumulation	204	(2)
Bog Accumulation	205	(1)
Poor Fen Accumulation	205	(1)
Rich Fen Accumulation	205	(1)
Northern Peatlands: Sinks or Sources of Carbon?	206	(1)
Potential Climatic Effects on Peatland Form and Vegetation	207	(2)
Permafrost Melting in the Boreal Forest	209	(1)
Global Climate Change vs. Cumulative Disturbance	210	(1)
Mitigation	211	(6)
Acknowledgments	213	(1)
References	213	(4)
Linking Biomass Energy to Biosphere Greenhouse Gas Management	217	(16)
D.B. Layzell
J. Stephen
Introduction	218	(1)
Biosphere Solutions	218	(1)
Reduce Biosphere GHG Emissions	218	(1)
Sequester Atmospheric CO2	218	(1)
Complement Fossil Energy Streams	219	(1)
Adapt Our Biosphere to a Changing Atmosphere and Climate	219	(1)
The Bioenergy Challenge	219	(1)
Sustainable Sources of Biomass	220	(2)
Municipalities	221	(1)
Agriculture	221	(1)
Forestry	222	(1)
Case Study: Accessing Biomass from Disturbed Forest Sites	222	(2)
Option 1: Harvest Biomass for Fiber Markets	223	(1)
Option 2: Leave the Biomass to Decompose	224	(1)
Option 3: Harvest for Bioenergy	224	(1)
Case Study: Impact of Various Feedstock-to-Product Threads	224	(4)
Biopower	224	(3)
Bioethanol	227	(1)
Biodiesel	227	(1)
Conclusion	228	(1)
Socioeconomics of Biomass Energy	228	(1)
Conclusions	229	(4)
Acknowledgment	230	(1)
References	230	(3)
Ruminant Contributions to Methane and Global Warming --- A New Zealand Perspective	233	(28)
G.C. Waghorn
S.L. Woodward
Introduction	234	(1)
Relevance of Greenhouse Gases for New Zealand Producers	234	(2)
New Zealand GHG Inventory	236	(1)
Methane	236	(1)
Nitrous Oxides	237	(1)
Defining Mitigation	237	(1)
Methane Mitigation	238	(3)
Relationship between Diet Composition and Methanogenesis	241	(1)
Methane Emissions from Ruminants Fed Fresh Forages	242	(2)
New Zealand Measurements	242	(2)
Pasture Methane Measurements outside New Zealand	244	(1)
Condensed Tannins and Methanogenesis	244	(2)
Animal Variation in Methanogenesis	246	(1)
Management to Mitigate Methane in Grazing Animals	247	(1)
Feed Additives	248	(1)
Oils	248	(1)
Ionophors	248	(1)
Removing the Protozoa (Defaunation)	248	(1)
Targeting Methanogens	249	(1)
Vaccine	249	(1)
Agronomy and Complementary Feeds	250	(1)
Nitrous Oxide Emissions and Abatement	251	(2)
Mitigation Options	251	(1)
Animal Management and Feeding	252	(1)
Whole-Farm Systems	253	(2)
Summary and Conclusions	255	(6)
Acknowledgments	255	(1)
References	256	(5)
Strategies for Reducing Enteric Methane Emissions in Forage-Based Beef Production Systems	261	(12)
K.H. Ominski
K.M. Wittenberg
Introduction	261	(1)
Enteric Fermentation	262	(1)
Mechanisms by Which Methane Production May Be Reduced	262	(1)
Management Strategies Leading to a Reduction in Enteric Methane Emissions	263	(6)
Forage Utilization	264	(1)
Quality	264	(1)
Species	265	(1)
Pasture Management	266	(1)
Forage Preservation and Processing	266	(1)
Feed Additives	267	(1)
Improved Production Efficiencies	268	(1)
A Systems-Based Approach to Management	269	(1)
Summary and Conclusions	269	(4)
References	270	(3)
Mitigating Environmental Pollution from Swine Production	273	(22)
A.L. Sutton
B.T. Richert
B.C. Joern
Introduction	273	(1)
Environmental Impacts	274	(1)
Agronomic Considerations	275	(4)
Phosphorus	275	(2)
Nitrogen	277	(2)
Feed Formulation	279	(4)
Phosphorus	279	(1)
Nitrogen	280	(2)
Other Minerals	282	(1)
Feed Management	283	(2)
By-Product Feeds and Additives	283	(2)
Genetic Modifications	285	(1)
Odor Reduction	285	(4)
Nitrogen Manipulation	286	(1)
Adding Fermentable Carbohydrates	286	(2)
Microbial Manipulation	288	(1)
Physical Characteristics	288	(1)
Summary	289	(6)
References	290	(5)
Diet Manipulation to Control Odor and Gas Emissions from Swine Production	295	(24)
O.G. Clark
S. Moehn
J.D. Price
Y. Zhang
W.C. Sauer
B. Morin
J.J. Feddes
J.J. Leonard
J.K.A. Atakora
R.T. Zijlstra
I. Edeogu
R.O. Ball
Introduction	296	(1)
Emissions from Pig Production	296	(3)
Odor	296	(1)
Ammonia	297	(1)
Hydrogen Sulfide	297	(1)
Greenhouse Gases	298	(1)
Diet Manipulation Strategies	299	(9)
Reducing Dietary Protein Content	299	(1)
Dietary Protein and Nutrient Excretion	300	(1)
Dietary Protein and Manure Odor	301	(1)
Dietary Protein and Manure pH	301	(1)
Dietary Protein and Manure H2S	302	(1)
Dietary Protein and CO2 Production	302	(1)
Dietary Protein and Enteric CH4 Production	303	(1)
Dietary Protein and CO2-Equivalent GHG Emissions	303	(1)
Dietary Protein and Manure N2O Emissions	304	(1)
Manipulation of Dietary Non-Starch Polysaccharide	305	(1)
Dietary NSP and Manure Odor	305	(1)
Dietary NSP and Manure NH3 Emissions	305	(1)
Dietary NSP and Enteric CH4 Production	306	(1)
Dietary NSP and Manure CH4	306	(1)
Other Dietary Manipulations	307	(1)
Improving Small Intestinal Digestion	307	(1)
Reducing Hindgut Fermentation	307	(1)
Metabolic Modification with Exogenous Hormones	308	(1)
Altering Manure Properties	308	(1)
Conclusions	308	(11)
References	309	(10)
PART III Knowledge Gaps and Challenges
Identifying and Addressing Knowledge Gaps and Challenges Involving Greenhouse Gases in Agriculture Systems under Climate Change	319	(14)
D. Burton
J. Sauve
Introduction	320	(1)
The Climate Change Funding Initiative in Agriculture	320	(1)
Biological Greenhouse Gas Sources and Sinks	321	(1)
The Alberta Greenhouse Gas Science Plan	321	(3)
Developing a Science Plan	321	(1)
What Is an Agricultural Greenhouse Gas Science Plan?	321	(1)
How Was the Agricultural Greenhouse Gas Science Plan Developed?	322	(1)
What Research Gaps Did the Agricultural Greenhouse Gas Science Plan Reveal?	322	(1)
Research Gaps That Address High Potential Practices	323	(1)
Developing a Strategic Roadmap	324	(1)
Expert Committee on Greenhouse Gases and Carbon Sequestration	324	(7)
BIOCAP Canada Foundation	331	(1)
Moving Forward	331	(2)
Acknowledgments	331	(1)
Reference	332	(1)
Knowledge Gaps and Challenges in Forest Ecosystems under Climate Change: A Look at the Temperate and Boreal Forests of North America	333	(22)
P.Y. Bernier
M.J. Apps
Introduction	334	(1)
A Short Review of Recent Advances	335	(4)
Carbon Budgets and Disturbances	335	(1)
Stand- and Tree-Level Processes	336	(2)
Landscape-Level Responses	338	(1)
Gaps in Knowledge	339	(7)
Propagating Error in Models	339	(2)
Interaction between Climate and Disturbance Regimes	341	(1)
Impact of Climate Change on Net Forest Growth and Carbon Stocks	342	(1)
Carbon Dynamics of Peatlands	343	(1)
Verification of Satellite-Based Estimates	344	(2)
Summary and Conclusions	346	(9)
Acknowledgments	348	(1)
References	348	(7)
Knowledge Gaps and Challenges in Wetlands under Climate Change in Canada	355	(20)
B.G. Warner
T. Asada
Introduction	355	(1)
Common Misconceptions	356	(1)
Wetland Classification and Inventory	356	(4)
Hydrological Landscape Modifications and Water Budget Fluctuations	360	(2)
Sedimentation and Water Quality Changes	362	(1)
Carbon Cycling and Climate	363	(1)
Invasive Species	363	(3)
Wetland Archival Records	366	(1)
Wetland Ecotechnology: The Way of the Future	367	(1)
Summary and Conclusions	367	(8)
References	368	(7)
PART IV Economics and Policy Issues
Economics of Forest and Agricultural Carbon Sinks	375	(24)
G.C. van Kooten
Introduction	375	(1)
Economic Instruments to Address Climate Change and the Kyoto Protocol Mechanism	376	(2)
Terrestrial Carbon Sinks: Issues	378	(9)
Additionality, Monitoring, and Leakages	379	(2)
Discounting Physical Carbon	381	(1)
Credit Trading	382	(2)
The Ephemeral Nature of Sinks	384	(3)
Prognosis for Forest Ecosystem Sinks	387	(1)
Prognosis for Agricultural Sinks	388	(4)
Conclusions	392	(7)
References	393	(6)
PART V Summary and Recommendations
Impacts of Climate Change on Agriculture, Forest, and Wetland Ecosystems: Synthesis and Summary	399	(12)
J.M.R. Stone
J.S. Bhatti
R. Lal
Introduction	399	(1)
Climate Change Is Real	399	(3)
Impacts of Climate Change on Agriculture, Forest, and Wetland Ecosystems	402	(4)
What Is Next under Changing Climate?	406	(5)
References	408	(3)
Climate Change and Terrestrial Ecosystem Management: Knowledge Gaps and Research Needs	411	(16)
I.E. Bauer
M.J. Apps
J.S. Bhatti
R. Lal
Introduction	411	(2)
Knowledge Gaps and Research Priorities	413	(12)
The Climate System	413	(2)
Current Stocks and Fluxes	415	(1)
C Dynamics of Different Ecosystem Types	415	(2)
Major Non-CO2 Greenhouse Gases	417	(1)
Future Importance of Disturbance	417	(1)
Ecosystem Response to Projected Changes	418	(1)
Agriculture and Forestry	418	(2)
Wetlands	420	(1)
Strategies/Technologies for Adaptation or Mitigation	421	(1)
Agricultural and Forest Ecosystems	421	(2)
Wetlands/Peatlands	423	(1)
Methodological and Interdisciplinary Issues	424	(1)
Conclusion	425	(2)
References	426	(1)
Index	427