Cognition

by Matlin, Margaret W.

• ISBN13: 9780155071162
• ISBN10: 0155071165
• Edition: 5th
• Format: Hardcover
• Copyright: 2001-01-01
• Publisher: Wadsworth Publishing

Summary

This text's success has come in large part from its up-to-date coverage of important research and theories and offers the latest and most comprehensive overview of cognition on the market today. Recent developments in perception, imagery, problem solving, and creativity are highlighted along with advances in such areas as memory and language and expanded theoretical approaches. * Up-to-date, carefully revised coverage of topics * Clear, engaging writing with numerous examples: Students do not need to struggle to understand overly complex descriptions * Extensive, useful pedagogical devices * Application of cognitive psychology to other disciplines: Many applications relate to careers that students may intend to pursue, such as education, communication, business, consumer psychology, clinical psychology, social psychology, medicine, and law * Margaret Matlin has a strong reputation for her research in cognitive psychology

Table of Contents

Introduction	1	(30)
A Brief History of the Cognitive Approach	3	(10)
The Origins of Cognitive Psychology	3	(1)
Wilhelm Wundt	4	(1)
Early Memory Researchers	4	(1)
William James	5	(1)
Behaviorism	5	(1)
The Gestalt Approach	6	(1)
Frederick C. Bartlett	6	(1)
The Emergence of Contemporary Cognitive Psychology	7	(1)
Factors Contributing to the Rise of Cognitive Psychology	8	(2)
The Information-Processing Approach	10	(3)
Current Theoretical Issues in Cognitive Psychology	13	(10)
Cognitive Science	14	(1)
Cognitive Neuroscience	15	(1)
Brain Lesions	15	(1)
Brain-Imaging Techniques	16	(1)
Event-Related Potential	17	(1)
Single-Cell Recording Technique	17	(1)
Artificial Intelligence	18	(1)
The Computer Metaphor	18	(1)
Pure AI	19	(1)
Computer Simulation	19	(1)
The Parallel Distributed Processing Approach	20	(1)
Origins of the PDP Approach	21	(1)
Basic Characteristics of the PDP Approach	21	(1)
Reactions to the PDP Approach	22	(1)
An Overview of This Book	23	(6)
Preview of the Chapters	23	(2)
Themes in the Book	25	(2)
How to Use This Book	27	(1)
Chapter Outline	27	(1)
Chapter Preview	27	(1)
Applications	27	(1)
New Terms	27	(1)
``In Depth'' Features	28	(1)
Section Summaries	28	(1)
End-of-Chapter Review	28	(1)
Recommended Readings	28	(1)
Glossary	28	(1)
Chapter Review Questions	29	(1)
New Terms	30	(1)
Recommended Readings	30	(1)
Perceptual Processes	31	(46)
Introduction	32	(1)
Object Recognition	33	(18)
Background on Object Recognition	34	(1)
Theories of Object Recognition	35	(1)
Template-Matching Theory	36	(2)
Feature-Analysis Models	38	(1)
The Recognition-by-Components Model	39	(2)
How Top-Down Processing Influences Object Recognition	41	(1)
The Distinction Between Bottom-Up Processing and Top-Down Processing	41	(1)
The Research on Top-Down Processing	42	(2)
Overactive Top-Down Processing	44	(1)
In Depth: Face Perception	45	(1)
Recognizing Faces Versus Recognizing Other Objects	45	(2)
Neuroscience Research on Face Recognition	47	(1)
Applied Research on Face Recognition	47	(1)
Change Blindness	48	(3)
Attention	51	(22)
Divided Attention	52	(1)
Research on Divided Attention	52	(1)
Divided Attention and Practice	53	(1)
Selective Attention	53	(1)
Dichotic Listening	54	(2)
The Stroop Effect	56	(1)
Theories of Attention	57	(1)
Early Theories of Attention	57	(1)
Automatic Versus Controlled Processing	58	(2)
Feature-Integration Theory	60	(4)
Neuroscience Research on Attention	64	(1)
The Posterior Attention Network	64	(2)
The Anterior Attention Network	66	(1)
Using the Event-Related Potential Technique to Explore Attention	66	(1)
Consciousness	67	(1)
Consciousness About Our Higher Mental Processes	68	(1)
Thought Suppression	69	(1)
Blindsight	70	(1)
The Cognitive Unconscious	71	(2)
Chapter Review Questions	73	(1)
New Terms	74	(1)
Recommended Readings	75	(2)
Working Memory	77	(34)
Introduction	78	(2)
The History of Research on Working Memory	80	(5)
George Miller's ``Magical Number Seven''	80	(1)
The Classic Research on Short-Term Memory	81	(1)
The Brown/Peterson & Peterson Technique	81	(1)
The Recency Effect	82	(2)
Memory Span	84	(1)
Atkinson and Shiffrin's Model	84	(1)
A Different View: Baddeley's Approach	84	(1)
Factors Affecting the Capacity of Working Memory	85	(5)
Pronunciation Time	85	(2)
Semantic Similarity of the Items in Working Memory	87	(3)
Baddeley's Working-Memory Approach	90	(18)
Evidence for Components With Independent Capacities	92	(1)
Phonological Loop	93	(1)
Other Research on the Phonological Loop	94	(1)
Two Components of the Phonological Loop	94	(1)
The Biological Basis of the Phonological Loop	95	(1)
Other Uses for the Phonological Loop	95	(1)
Visuo-Spatial Sketch Pad	95	(1)
Visual Coding in Working Memory	96	(3)
Spatial Coding in Working Memory	99	(1)
Biological Basis of the Visuo-Spatial Sketch Pad	100	(1)
Central Executive	100	(1)
The Central Executive and Stimulus-Independent Thought	101	(1)
Biological Basis of the Central Executive	102	(1)
New Directions for Research in Working Memory	102	(1)
In Depth: Individual Differences in Working Memory	103	(1)
Working Memory and Language Skills	103	(2)
Working Memory and Reading Skills	105	(1)
Working Memory and Memory Experts	106	(2)
Chapter Review Questions	108	(1)
New Terms	109	(1)
Recommended Readings	109	(2)
Long-Term Memory	111	(46)
Introduction	112	(1)
Encoding in Long-Term Memory	113	(16)
Depth of Processing	115	(1)
Depth of Processing and Memory for Verbal Material	115	(1)
Depth of Processing and Memory for Faces	116	(1)
In Depth: The Self-Reference Effect	117	(1)
Research on the Self-Reference Effect	117	(2)
Explanations for the Self-Reference Effect	119	(1)
Biological Correlates of the Self-Reference Effect	120	(1)
Applications of the Self-Reference Effect	121	(1)
The Effects of Context: Encoding Specificity	121	(1)
Research on Encoding Specificity	121	(3)
Depth of Processing and Encoding Specificity	124	(1)
Emotions, Mood, and Memory	125	(1)
Memory for Items Differing in Emotion	125	(1)
Effects of Television Violence on Memory for Commercials	126	(1)
Mood Congruence	127	(1)
Mood-Dependent Memory	127	(2)
Retrieval in Long-Term Memory	129	(10)
Explicit Versus Implicit Memory Tasks	129	(1)
Definitions and Examples	129	(2)
Research With Normal Adults	131	(1)
The Current Status of Implicit Memory	132	(1)
Very Long-Term Memory	133	(1)
Expertise	134	(2)
The Context-Specific Nature of Expertise	136	(1)
How Do Experts and Novices Differ?	136	(1)
Professional Actors	137	(1)
Own-Race Bias	137	(1)
Individuals With Amnesia	138	(1)
Autobiographical Memory	139	(15)
Flashbulb Memories	141	(1)
The Classic Research	142	(1)
More Recent Research	142	(1)
Schemas and Autobiographical Memory	143	(1)
Repisodic Memory	143	(1)
The Consistency Bias	144	(1)
Source Monitoring	145	(1)
Eyewitness Testimony	146	(1)
The Misinformation Effect	146	(2)
Factors Affecting the Accuracy of Eyewitness Testimony	148	(2)
The Recovered Memory/False Memory Controversy	150	(2)
Earwitness Testimony	152	(2)
Chapter Review Questions	154	(1)
New Terms	155	(1)
Recommended Readings	155	(2)
Memory Strategies and Metacognition	157	(36)
Introduction	158	(1)
Memory Strategies	159	(16)
Suggestions From Previous Chapters: A Review	159	(2)
Practice	161	(1)
Mnemonics Using Imagery	162	(1)
The Keyword Method	163	(1)
The Method of Loci	164	(2)
Mnemonics Using Organization	166	(1)
Chunking	166	(1)
Hierarchy Technique	166	(1)
First-Letter Technique	167	(1)
Narrative Technique	168	(1)
The Multimodal Approach	168	(2)
Improving Prospective Memory	170	(1)
Comparing Prospective and Retrospective Memory	170	(1)
Research on Prospective Memory	171	(1)
Absentmindedness	171	(1)
Suggestions for Improving Prospective Memory	172	(3)
Metacognition	175	(14)
In Depth: Metamemory	176	(1)
The Accuracy of Metamemory	176	(2)
The Relationship Between Metamemory and Memory Performance	178	(1)
Awareness of Factors Affecting Memory	179	(1)
Regulating Study Strategies	179	(3)
The Tip-of-the-Tongue Phenomenon	182	(1)
Brown and McNeill's Research	182	(2)
More Recent Research on the Tip-of-the-Tongue Phenomenon	184	(1)
Metacomprehension	185	(1)
Metacomprehension Accuracy	185	(2)
Improving Metacomprehension	187	(2)
Chapter Review Questions	189	(1)
New Terms	190	(1)
Recommended Readings	191	(2)
Imagery	193	(40)
Introduction	194	(1)
The Characteristics of Mental Images	195	(22)
Imagery and Rotation	197	(1)
Shepard and Metzler's Research	197	(2)
More Recent Research on Mental Rotation	199	(1)
Imagery and Size	200	(1)
Kosslyn's Research	200	(1)
More Recent Research on Imagery and Size	200	(2)
Imagery and Shape	202	(1)
Simple Shapes	202	(2)
Complex Shapes	204	(1)
Imagery and Interference	205	(1)
Visual Images and Visual Perception	206	(1)
Motor Movement and Motor Images	207	(1)
Imagery and Ambiguous Figures	208	(3)
Imagery and Other Vision-Like Processes	211	(1)
Imagery and Neuropsychological Evidence	212	(1)
Visual Imagery	212	(1)
Auditory and Motor Imagery	213	(1)
The Imagery Controversy, Revisited	213	(1)
The Analog Viewpoint	214	(1)
The Propositional Viewpoint	215	(2)
Cognitive Maps	217	(14)
Background Information About Cognitive Maps	217	(2)
Cognitive Maps and Distance	219	(1)
Number of Intervening Cities	220	(1)
Semantic Categories	220	(1)
Landmarks Versus Nonlandmarks as Destinations	221	(1)
Cognitive Maps and Shape	222	(1)
Angles	222	(1)
Curves	222	(1)
Cognitive Maps and Relative Position	223	(1)
The Rotation Heuristic	223	(1)
The Alignment Heuristic	224	(2)
Spatial Arrangement	226	(1)
In Depth: Using Verbal Descriptions to Create Mental Models	226	(1)
Franklin and Tversky's Research	227	(1)
The Spatial Framework Model	228	(1)
Further Research on Mental Models	229	(2)
Chapter Review Questions	231	(1)
New Terms	232	(1)
Recommended Readings	232	(1)
General Knowledge	233	(50)
Introduction	234	(2)
The Structure of Semantic Memory	236	(28)
Background on Semantic Memory	236	(1)
The Feature Comparison Model	237	(1)
Structural Components of the Feature Comparison Model	237	(2)
Research on the Feature Comparison Model	239	(1)
Conclusions About the Feature Comparison Model	240	(1)
In Depth: The Prototype Approach	240	(1)
Characteristics of Prototypes	241	(4)
Levels of Categorization	245	(3)
Conclusions About the Prototype Approach	248	(1)
The Exemplar Approach	249	(1)
A Representative Study on the Exemplar Approach	249	(1)
Comparing the Exemplar Approach With Other Approaches	250	(1)
New Directions in the Exemplar Approach	251	(1)
Network Models	252	(1)
The Collins and Loftus Network Model	252	(1)
Anderson's ACT Theory	253	(3)
The Parallel Distributed Processing Approach	256	(8)
Schemas and Scripts	264	(16)
Background on Schemas and Scripts	264	(2)
Factors Related to the Recall of Scripts	266	(1)
Script Identification	266	(1)
Appreciating the Similarity of Related Scripts	266	(1)
Schemas and Memory Selection	267	(1)
Enhanced Memory for Schema-Consistent Material	267	(2)
Enhanced Memory for Schema-Inconsistent Material	269	(3)
The Current Status of Schemas and Memory Selection	272	(1)
Schemas and Boundary Extension	272	(1)
Schemas and Memory Abstraction	273	(1)
The Constructive Approach	273	(1)
The Pragmatic Approach	274	(1)
The Current Status of Schemas and Memory Abstraction	275	(1)
Schemas and Inferences in Memory	276	(1)
The Classic Research on Inferences	276	(1)
Implications for Advertising	277	(1)
Schemas and Integration in Memory	277	(1)
Integration and Delayed Recall	278	(1)
Integration and Limited Memory Capacity	278	(1)
Conclusions About Schemas	279	(1)
Chapter Review Questions	280	(1)
New Terms	281	(1)
Recommended Readings	282	(1)
Language I: Introduction to Language and Language Comprehension	283	(46)
Introduction	284	(2)
The Nature of Language	286	(14)
Background on the Structure of Language	286	(1)
Usefulness of Phrase Structure	287	(1)
Research on Phrase Structure	287	(1)
A Brief History of Psycholinguistics	288	(1)
Chomsky's Transformational Grammar	288	(2)
Research About Chomsky's Theory	290	(1)
Psycholinguistic Theories Emphasizing Meaning	291	(1)
Factors Affecting Comprehension	292	(1)
Negatives	292	(1)
The Passive Voice	293	(1)
Nested Structures	293	(1)
Ambiguity	293	(2)
Neurolinguistics	295	(1)
Hemispheric Specialization	295	(1)
Individuals With Aphasia	296	(1)
Neuroimaging Research With Normal Individuals	297	(2)
Brain Imaging and Specific Language Knowledge	299	(1)
Speech Perception	300	(8)
Characteristics of Speech Perception	301	(1)
Variability in Phoneme Pronunciation	301	(1)
Context and Speech Perception	302	(2)
Visual Cues as an Aid to Speech Perception	304	(1)
Word Boundaries	305	(1)
Theories of Speech Perception	305	(1)
The Special Mechanism Approach	306	(1)
The General Mechanism Approaches	306	(2)
Basic Reading Processes	308	(9)
Comparing Written and Spoken Language	309	(1)
Saccadic Eye Movements	309	(2)
Discovering the Meaning of an Unfamiliar Word	311	(1)
Reading and Working Memory	312	(1)
Theories About the Role of Sound in Word Recognition	313	(1)
Research on the Dual-Route Hypothesis	314	(1)
Implications for Teaching Reading to Children	315	(2)
Understanding Discourse	317	(8)
Forming a Coherent Representation of the Text	317	(1)
In Depth: Inferences in Reading	318	(1)
The Constructionist Versus Minimalist Views of Inferences	318	(2)
Factors That Encourage Inferences	320	(2)
Higher-Level Inferences	322	(1)
Artificial Intelligence and Reading	322	(1)
The FRUMP Project	323	(1)
More Recent Projects	324	(1)
Chapter Review Questions	325	(1)
New Terms	326	(1)
Recommended Readings	327	(2)
Language II: Language Production and Bilingualism	329	(30)
Introduction	330	(1)
Speaking	331	(11)
Producing a Word	331	(1)
Producing a Sentence	332	(1)
Speech Errors	333	(1)
Types of Slip-of-the-Tongue Errors	333	(2)
Producing Discourse	335	(1)
The Social Context of Speech	336	(1)
Common Ground	337	(3)
Conversational Format	340	(1)
Directives	340	(2)
Writing	342	(5)
A Cognitive Model of Writing	343	(1)
Planning the Writing Assignment	344	(1)
Sentence Generation During Writing	345	(1)
The Revision Phase of Writing	345	(1)
Writing Style in Psychology	346	(1)
Bilingualism	347	(9)
Background on Bilingualism	348	(2)
Advantages of Bilingualism	350	(1)
In Depth: Second-Language Proficiency as a Function of Age of Acquisition	351	(1)
Phonology	352	(1)
Vocabulary	352	(1)
Grammar	353	(3)
Chapter Review Questions	356	(1)
New Terms	357	(1)
Recommended Readings	357	(2)
Problem Solving and Creativity	359	(40)
Introduction	360	(2)
Understanding the Problem	362	(8)
The Requirements for Problem Understanding	362	(1)
Paying Attention to Important Information	363	(1)
Methods of Representing the Problem	364	(1)
Symbols	364	(2)
Matrices	366	(1)
Diagrams	366	(1)
Visual Images	367	(1)
Situated Cognition: The Importance of Context	368	(2)
Problem-Solving Approaches	370	(7)
The Hill-Climbing Heuristic	370	(2)
The Means-Ends Heuristic	372	(1)
Research on the Means-Ends Heuristic	372	(1)
Computer Simulation	373	(1)
The Analogy Approach	374	(1)
The Structure of the Analogy Approach	375	(1)
Factors Encouraging Appropriate Use of Analogies	375	(2)
Factors That Influence Problem Solving	377	(10)
Expertise	377	(1)
Knowledge Base	377	(1)
Memory	378	(1)
Representation	378	(1)
Problem-Solving Approaches	378	(1)
Elaborating on Initial States	379	(1)
Speed and Accuracy	379	(1)
Metacognitive Skills	380	(1)
Mental Set	380	(1)
Functional Fixedness	381	(2)
Insight Versus Noninsight Problems	383	(1)
The Nature of Insight	383	(1)
Metacognition During Problem Solving	384	(1)
The Role of Language in Problem Solving	384	(3)
Creativity	387	(8)
Definitions	387	(1)
Approaches to Creativity	388	(1)
Divergent Production	388	(1)
Investment Theory of Creativity	389	(1)
In Depth: Task Motivation and Creativity	390	(1)
The Relationship Between Intrinsic Motivation and Creativity	390	(1)
The Relationship Between Extrinsic Motivation and Creativity	391	(2)
Incubation and Creativity	393	(2)
Chapter Review Questions	395	(1)
New Terms	396	(1)
Recommended Readings	396	(3)
Deductive Reasoning and Decision Making	399	(50)
Introduction	400	(1)
Deductive Reasoning	401	(10)
An Overview of Conditional Reasoning	402	(3)
Difficulties With Negative Information	405	(1)
Difficulties With Abstract Reasoning Problems	405	(1)
The Belief-Bias Effect	406	(1)
Making an Illicit Conversion	407	(1)
The Confirmation Bias	408	(1)
The Standard Wason Selection Task	408	(1)
Variations on the Wason Selection Task	409	(1)
Failing to Transfer Knowledge to a New Task	410	(1)
Decision Making	411	(35)
The Representativeness Heuristic	413	(2)
Sample Size and Representativeness	415	(1)
Base Rate and Representativeness	416	(2)
The Conjunction Fallacy and Representativeness	418	(2)
The Availability Heuristic	420	(2)
Recency and Availability	422	(1)
Familiarity and Availability	423	(2)
Illusory Correlation and Availability	425	(2)
The Simulation Heuristic and Availability	427	(1)
The Anchoring and Adjustment Heuristic	428	(1)
Research on the Anchoring and Adjustment Heuristic.	429	(1)
Applications of the Anchoring and Adjustment Heuristic	430	(2)
Estimating Confidence Intervals	432	(1)
The Framing Effect	433	(1)
Background Information and the Framing Effect	434	(1)
The Wording of a Question and the Framing Effect	435	(1)
Reasons for the Framing Effect	436	(1)
In Depth: Overconfidence in Decisions	437	(1)
General Studies on Overconfidence	437	(1)
Overconfidence in Political Decision Making	438	(1)
Students' Overconfidence About Completing Projects on Time	439	(1)
Reasons for Overconfidence	440	(1)
The Hindsight Bias	441	(2)
Research About the Hindsight Bias	443	(1)
Explanations for the Hindsight Bias	444	(1)
Two Perspectives on Decision Making: The Optimists Versus the Pessimists	444	(2)
Chapter Review Questions	446	(1)
New Terms	447	(1)
Recommended Readings	448	(1)
Cognitive Development	449	(42)
Introduction	450	(2)
The Development of Memory	452	(18)
Memory in Infants	452	(1)
Recognizing Mother	452	(1)
Conjugate Reinforcement With a Mobile	453	(3)
Imitation	456	(1)
In Depth: Memory in Children	456	(1)
Children's Working Memory	457	(1)
Children's Long-Term Memory: General	457	(2)
Children's Long-Term Memory: Autobiographical Memory	459	(3)
Children's Memory Strategies	462	(3)
Memory in Elderly People	465	(1)
Working Memory in the Elderly	465	(1)
Long-Term Memory in the Elderly	466	(2)
Explanations for Age Differences in Memory	468	(2)
The Development of Metacognition	470	(6)
Metacognition in Children	470	(1)
Children's Metamemory: How Memory Works	470	(1)
Children's Metamemory: Realizing the Necessity of Effort	471	(1)
Children's Metamemory: Accuracy of Predictions	472	(1)
Children's Metamemory: The Relationship Between Metamemory and Memory Performance	472	(2)
Children's Metacomprehension	474	(1)
Metacognition in Elderly People	474	(2)
The Development of Language	476	(12)
Language in Infants	477	(1)
Speech Perception in Infancy	477	(2)
Language Comprehension in Infancy	479	(1)
Language Production in Infancy	480	(1)
Parents' Language to Infants	480	(2)
Language in Children	482	(1)
Words	482	(2)
Morphology	484	(1)
Syntax	485	(2)
Pragmatics	487	(1)
Chapter Review Questions	488	(1)
New Terms	489	(1)
Recommended Readings	490	(1)
One Last Task	490	(1)
Glossary	491	(14)
References	505	(64)
Credits	569	(1)
Name Index	570	(11)
Subject Index	581