Communication Research : Asking Questions, Finding Answers

by Keyton, Joann

• ISBN13: 9780073049502
• ISBN10: 0073049506
• Edition: 2nd
• Format: Hardcover
• Copyright: 2005-04-27
• Publisher: McGraw-Hill Humanities/Social Sciences/Languages

Summary

This text covers basic research issues and both quantitative and qualitative approaches to communication research. The guiding principle of the text is that methodological choices arise from one's research questions and hypotheses; thus, the text focuses first on the research process, and then discusses the methodological tools for understanding and conducting basic communication research projects. In the second edition, every chapter includes examples based on research from 2002 and thereafter, and revisions improve the balance of quantitative and qualitative research perspectives as well as of data collection and analytical procedures.

Table of Contents

Preface	xvii
SECTION 1: RESEARCH BASICS
Introduction to Research in Communication	1	(15)
Chapter Checklist	1	(1)
What is Research?	2	(2)
Your Relationship With Research	3	(1)
An Ethical Issue: Is Communication Public or Private?	4	(1)
Scholarly Research	4	(3)
Goals of Research	5	(2)
Research and Theory	7	(1)
Communication as a Social Science	7	(5)
The Scientific Approach	8	(1)
Characteristics of Science	9	(2)
Methodological Extremes	11	(1)
What Kinds of Questions do Communication Scholars Ask?	12	(2)
The Nature of the Questions	13	(1)
Try This! Evaluating Communication Questions	14	(1)
Summary	14	(1)
Key Terms	15	(1)
The Research Process: Getting Started	16	(19)
Chapter Checklist	16	(1)
The Research Process Model	17	(3)
Identifying the Research Problem	20	(1)
Formulating Research Ideas	20	(1)
Turning Topics Into Preliminary Questions	20	(1)
Evaluating Your Questions	21	(1)
Using Library and Database Resources	21	(6)
Library Resources	21	(1)
Try this! Developing Initial Questions to Guide the Research Process	22	(1)
Library Search Strategies	23	(3)
Try this! Searching the Research Literature . . .	26	(1)
Other Reference and Database Resources	26	(1)
Getting Resources From the Web	26	(1)
Adjusting the Question	26	(1)
Design Check: Reader Beware	27	(1)
Reading Scholarly Articles and Books	27	(3)
An Ethical Issue: Using the Ideas of Others	28	(1)
Identifying Primary Ideas and Conclusions	28	(1)
Design Check: Evaluating the Literature You Found	29	(1)
Tracking Others' References	29	(1)
Summarizing What You Have Found	29	(1)
The Role of Theory in Research	30	(3)
Developing Theory	30	(2)
Try this! Finding Theory in Journal Articles	32	(1)
Theory--Research Link	32	(1)
Continuing with the Research Process	33	(1)
Summary	34	(1)
Key Terms	34	(1)
Introduction to Quantitative Research	35	(23)
Chapter Checklist	35	(1)
What is Quantitative Research?	36	(5)
Examples of Quantitative Research	36	(1)
An Ethical Issue: Giving Your Children Permission to Participate in a Research Study	37	(1)
Deductive Reasoning	38	(1)
A Model for Conceptualizing Quantitative Research	38	(3)
Creating the Foundation for Quantitative Research	41	(1)
Research Hypotheses for Quantitative Research	42	(3)
Directional Hypotheses	44	(1)
Nondirectional Hypotheses	44	(1)
Assessing Hypotheses	44	(1)
Null Hypotheses	45	(1)
Research Traditions in the Use of Hypotheses	45	(1)
Research Questions in Quantitative Research	45	(1)
Types of Variables	46	(4)
Independent Variables	47	(1)
Design Check: What Is Sex? What Is Gender?	48	(1)
Dependent Variables	48	(1)
The Relationship Between Independent and Dependent Variables	49	(1)
Intervening and Confounding Variables	50	(1)
Operationalizing Variables	50	(2)
Try this! Identifying Independent and Dependent Variables	51	(1)
Making the Case for Quantitative Research	52	(4)
Try this! Operationalizing Variables	53	(1)
Advantages of Quantitative Research	53	(1)
Limitations of Quantitative Research	54	(1)
Issues of Reliability and Validity	54	(1)
Threats to Reliability and Validity	55	(1)
Summary	56	(1)
Key Terms	57	(1)
Introduction to Qualitative Research	58	(17)
Chapter Checklist	58	(1)
What is Qualitative Research?	59	(8)
Examples of Qualitative Research	60	(2)
Try this! Identifying Contexts for Qualitative Research	62	(1)
Inductive Analysis	63	(1)
A Model for Qualitative Research	63	(2)
Issues of Credibility in Qualitative Research	65	(2)
Conceptualizing Research Questions for Qualitative Research	67	(1)
Assessing Research Questions	67	(1)
Design Check: What If Research Questions Are Not Presented?	68	(1)
What Counts as Data in Qualitative Research?	68	(2)
Interpreting Meaning	68	(1)
Level of Evidence	69	(1)
Making the Case for Qualitative Research	70	(1)
Advantages of Qualitative Research	70	(1)
Limitations of Qualitative Research	70	(1)
Threats to Credibility in Qualitative Research	70	(1)
Comparing Quantitative and Qualitative Research	71	(2)
Key Differences in Quantitative and Qualitative Research	71	(1)
Key Similarities in Quantitative and Qualitative Research	72	(1)
An Ethical Issue: Is Anything Off-Limits?	73	(1)
Which Do I Choose?	73	(1)
Summary	73	(1)
Key Terms	74	(1)
Research Ethics	75	(21)
Chapter Checklist	75	(1)
Ethical Questions in Planning Research	76	(11)
An Ethical Issue: Professional Association Guidelines for Conducting Research	78	(2)
Institutional Review Board	80	(1)
An Ethical Issue: Do Research Participants Have Any Ethical Responsibilities?	81	(1)
Informed Consent	81	(1)
Design Check: Do You Need Informed Consent for Your Research Project?	82	(1)
An Ethical Issue: Would You Participate?	83	(4)
Design Check: Private or Public?	87	(1)
Ethical Issues in Conducting Research	87	(6)
Intentional Deception	87	(1)
Using Confederates	88	(1)
Physical and Psychological Harm	89	(1)
Upholding Anonymity and Confidentiality	90	(1)
Try this! What Would You Include?	91	(1)
Videotaping and Audiotaping Participants	92	(1)
Debriefing Participants	92	(1)
Ethical Issues in Reporting Research	93	(2)
Ensuring Accuracy	93	(1)
Avoiding Plagiarism	93	(1)
An Ethical Issue: Ethics in Proprietary Research	94	(1)
Protecting the Identities of Participants	94	(1)
Summary	95	(1)
Key Terms	95	(1)
SECTION 2: QUANTITATIVE COMMUNICATION RESEARCH
Measurement	96	(22)
Chapter Checklist	96	(1)
Measurement Principles	97	(2)
Levels of Measurement in Communication Research	99	(6)
Discrete Data	99	(2)
An Ethical Issue: What Am I Willing to Reveal About Myself?	101	(1)
Continuous Level Data	101	(3)
Try this! Changing Levels of Measurement	104	(1)
Design Check: Questioning Measurement Techniques	105	(1)
Issues of Validity and Reliability	105	(10)
Validity	106	(2)
Reliability	108	(4)
Design Check: Finding Information About Validity and Reliability	112	(1)
The Relationship Between Validity and Reliability	112	(1)
Threats to Validity and Reliability	113	(1)
Design Check: Will These Results Apply to Me?	114	(1)
Issues of Data Interpretation	115	(1)
Summary	116	(1)
Key Terms	117	(1)
Sampling, Significance Levels, and Hypothesis Testing	118	(21)
Chapter Checklist	118	(1)
Population and Sample	119	(14)
Defining the Population	119	(1)
Addressing Generalizability	120	(1)
Probability Sampling	121	(4)
Nonprobability Sampling	125	(1)
An Ethical Issue: Participant Selection Can Make a Difference	126	(1)
Design Check: Are Students Too Convenient?	127	(2)
Design Check: Justifying Nonprobability Sampling	129	(1)
Sample Size	130	(1)
Try this! Identifying Populations, Generating Samples	131	(1)
An Ethical Issue: Selected, But Not Required to Participate	132	(1)
A Final Word on Sampling	132	(1)
Significance Levels	133	(1)
Hypothesis Testing	134	(3)
Design Check: Addressing Issues of Sampling, Significance Levels, and Hypothesis Testing	136	(1)
A Final Word	137	(1)
Summary	137	(1)
Key Terms	138	(1)
Quantitative Research Designs	139	(22)
Chapter Checklist	139	(1)
The Experimental Framework	140	(12)
The Classical Experiment	142	(3)
An Ethical Issue: Would You Ask Participants To . . .?	145	(1)
Types of Experimental Design	146	(4)
Longitudinal Designs	150	(1)
Strengths of Experimentation	150	(1)
Try this! Designing an Experiment	151	(1)
Limitations of Experimentation	152	(1)
Quasi-Experiments	152	(4)
Field Experiments	154	(1)
Design Check: Is One Study Ever Enough?	155	(1)
Descriptive Designs	156	(1)
Strengths and Limitations of Descriptive Research Designs	157	(1)
Researcher Effects and Procedural Bias	157	(2)
Comparing Research Designs	159	(1)
Summary	160	(1)
Key Terms	160	(1)
Surveys and Questionnaires	161	(21)
Chapter Checklist	161	(1)
What is a Survey?	162	(2)
Types of Surveys	162	(2)
Design Check: Are All Polls the Same?	164	(1)
Designing a Survey	164	(10)
Evaluating Existing Questionnaires or Surveys	164	(2)
Try this! Survey Design	166	(1)
Writing Your Own Questionnaire	166	(1)
Designing Survey Items	166	(4)
Design Check: Racial and Ethnic Group Identification	170	(4)
Try this! How Different Are Usually, Sometimes, and Seldom?	174	(1)
How the Survey Looks	174	(1)
Pretesting the Survey or Questionnaire	174	(4)
Try This! Does This Questionnaire Need Modification?	176	(2)
An Ethical Issue: Would You Participate?	178	(1)
Sampling Issues for Surveys	178	(1)
Response Rate	178	(1)
Using Census as an Alternative to Sampling	179	(1)
Survey Reliability and Validity	179	(1)
Analyzing and Reporting Survey Data	180	(1)
Summary	181	(1)
Key Terms	181	(1)
Descriptive Statistics	182	(13)
Chapter Checklist	182	(1)
Normal Curve	183	(2)
Skewed Distributions	184	(1)
Distributions of Data	185	(1)
Descriptive Statistics	185	(6)
Try this! Are the Data Normal or Skewed?	187	(1)
Number of Cases	187	(1)
Measures of Central Tendency	187	(2)
Measures of Dispersion	189	(2)
Application of Descriptive Statistics	191	(2)
Frequencies	191	(1)
Design Check: Describing Variables	192	(1)
Percentages	192	(1)
An Ethical Issue: Mistakes in Calculations	193	(1)
Crunching the Numbers: Calculator or Computer?	193	(1)
Summary	194	(1)
Key Terms	194	(1)
Testing for Differences	195	(19)
Chapter Checklist	195	(1)
Inferential Statistics	196	(2)
Alternative and Null Hypotheses	197	(1)
Degrees of Freedom	197	(1)
Four Analytical Steps	197	(1)
Chi-Square	198	(4)
One-Dimensional Chi-Square	199	(1)
Contingency Analysis	200	(1)
Limitations of Chi-Square	201	(1)
Design Check: Interpreting Chi-Squares	202	(1)
The t-Test	202	(2)
Common Forms of t-Test	203	(1)
Two-Tailed t-Test	203	(1)
One-Tailed t-Test	204	(1)
Limitations of the t-Test	204	(1)
Analysis of Variance	204	(7)
Design Check: Interpreting t-Tests	205	(1)
ANOVA Basics	205	(1)
An Ethical Issue: Are Two Categories Fully Representative?	206	(2)
One-Way ANOVA	208	(1)
Two-Way ANOVA	208	(2)
Try this! Should Differences Be Significant or Practical?	210	(1)
Factorial ANOVA	210	(1)
Limitations of ANOVA	211	(1)
Asking for Statistical Help	211	(1)
Summary	212	(1)
Design Check: Interpreting F	213	(1)
Key Terms	213	(1)
Testing for Relationships	214	(18)
Chapter Checklist	214	(2)
Design Check: Paying Attention to Details	216	(1)
Basic Assumptions	216	(1)
Alternative and Null Hypotheses	216	(1)
Degrees of Freedom	217	(1)
Four Analytical Steps	217	(1)
Correlation	217	(6)
Interpreting the Coefficient	218	(2)
Examples of Correlation	220	(2)
Other Forms of Correlation	222	(1)
Limitations of Correlation	222	(1)
Design Check: Interpreting Correlations	223	(1)
Regression	223	(5)
Linear Regression	224	(1)
Multiple Regression	225	(2)
Regression Examples	227	(1)
Limitations of Regression	228	(1)
Cautions in Using Statistics	228	(3)
Design Check: Interpreting Multiple Regression	229	(1)
Try This! Identifying Independent Variables for Multiple Regression	230	(1)
Summary	231	(1)
Key Terms	231	(1)
Quantitative Analysis of Text	232	(15)
Chapter Checklist	232	(1)
Content Analysis	233	(9)
What Content Can Be Analyzed?	234	(1)
Design Check: Content Analyzing Media Messages	235	(1)
The Content Analysis Process	235	(3)
Try this! Identifying Themes of Freshman Socialization	238	(1)
Interpreting the Coding Results	239	(1)
Design Check: How Did the Researcher Perform the Content Analysis?	240	(1)
Computers and Content Analysis	241	(1)
Strengths of Content Analysis Research	241	(1)
An Ethical Issue: Taking Content Out of Context	242	(1)
Limitations of Content Analysis Research	242	(1)
Interaction Analysis	242	(3)
Gathering and Preparing the Interaction for Coding	243	(1)
Coding the Interaction	243	(1)
Analyzing and Interpreting the Coding	244	(1)
Strengths of Interaction Analysis	245	(1)
Limitations of Interaction Analysis	245	(1)
Design Considerations	245	(1)
Summary	246	(1)
Key Terms	246	(1)
SECTION 3: QUALITATIVE COMMUNICATION RESEARCH
Designing Qualitative Research	247	(21)
Chapter Checklist	247	(1)
The Researcher's Role in Qualitative Methodologies	248	(4)
Forms of Participant Observation	249	(2)
An Ethical Issue: One Role? Or Two?	251	(1)
Try this! Assuming Researcher Roles	252	(1)
Identifying the Research Focus	252	(2)
Consulting the Literature	253	(1)
Asking or Stating the Research Objective	253	(1)
Sampling in Qualitative Designs	254	(2)
Special Considerations for Sampling in Qualitative Research	255	(1)
Design Check: Why Was the Researcher There?	256	(1)
Gaining Access	256	(4)
Becoming Familiar With People and Places	257	(1)
Developing Trust	258	(1)
Stumbling Onto Something Interesting	259	(1)
Collecting Qualitative Data	260	(6)
Observation Strategies	260	(1)
Try this! Your Classroom as a Seamless Container	261	(1)
Taking Notes	262	(2)
Transcribing Notes	264	(1)
What If You Cannot Take Notes?	265	(1)
What Constitutes Data in Qualitative Research?	265	(1)
Your Impact as a Researcher	265	(1)
Design Check: Are the Data Credible?	266	(1)
Finalizing the Research Design	266	(1)
Summary	267	(1)
Key Terms	267	(1)
Qualitative Methods of Data Collection	268	(21)
Chapter Checklist	268	(1)
Field Interviewing	269	(7)
Electronic Interviewing	270	(1)
The Interview Process	270	(2)
Design Check: Where Did the Interviews Occur?	272	(1)
Conducting the Interview	272	(1)
Orientation and Sample of Guiding Questions for In-Depth Interviews	273	(2)
Strengths and Limitations of Interview Research	275	(1)
Focus Groups	276	(6)
Planning Focus Group Research	277	(1)
Conducting Focus Group Research	278	(1)
Data From Focus Group Discussions	279	(1)
Focus Group Strengths and Limitations	279	(1)
Try this! Motivating Attendance at Focus Groups	280	(1)
An Ethical Issue: Research or Selling?	281	(1)
Collecting Stories	282	(2)
Sources for Stories	282	(2)
Design Check: Finding Participants	284	(1)
Strengths and Limitations of Narrative Research	284	(1)
Ethnography	284	(4)
Investigating the Here and Now	286	(1)
Entering the Scene	286	(1)
Design Check: Reading Ethnography	287	(1)
Recording Observations	287	(1)
Strengths and Limitations of Ethnographic Research	287	(1)
Summary	288	(1)
Key Terms	288	(1)
Analyzing Qualitative Data	289	(11)
Chapter Checklist	289	(1)
An Overview	290	(1)
Choosing an Analytic Method	290	(1)
The Process of Analysis	291	(3)
Analytical Memos	291	(1)
Diagramming the Data	291	(1)
Using Computers	292	(1)
Coding and Categorizing Data	293	(1)
Grounded Theory	294	(1)
Thematic Analysis	295	(1)
The Process of Interpretation	296	(3)
Evaluating Interpretation	297	(1)
Design Check: How Are Participant Quotes Used?	298	(1)
Summary	299	(1)
Key Terms	299	(1)
SECTION 4: READING AND WRITING RESEARCH REPORTS
Reading and Writing the Quantitative Research Report	300	(15)
Chapter Checklist	300	(1)
The Literature Review	301	(3)
The Problem Statement	301	(1)
Types of Material to Include in the Literature Review	302	(1)
Organizing the Literature Review	303	(1)
Presenting the Research Questions and Hypotheses	304	(1)
The Methods Section	304	(2)
Describing Participants	304	(1)
Describing the Research Procedure	305	(1)
Describing the Variables	305	(1)
Design Check: Do You Have the Basic Information?	306	(1)
The Results Section	306	(1)
Using Tables and Graphs	306	(1)
The Discussion Section	306	(4)
Developing Interpretations From Results	307	(1)
An Ethical Issue: Dealing With Unexpected Results	308	(1)
Manner of Presentation	308	(1)
Presenting the Limitations	309	(1)
Recommending Future Research	309	(1)
Try This! How to Read a Research Report	310	(1)
Finishing the Quantitative Research Report	310	(1)
Title	310	(1)
Title Page	310	(1)
Abstract	310	(1)
References	311	(1)
Using APA Style	311	(2)
Citing Others' Work	311	(1)
Creating the Reference List	311	(1)
Try This! Submit Your Research Paper to a Communication Convention	312	(1)
Issues in Writing	313	(1)
The Revision Process	313	(1)
Summary	314	(1)
Key Terms	314	(1)
Reading and Writing the Qualitative Research Report	315
Chapter Checklist	315	(1)
Parts of the Qualitative Research Report	316	(1)
Presenting the Core Idea or Question	316	(1)
Writing about the Method	317	(1)
Revealing the Identity of Participants	318	(1)
Presenting the Data	318	(6)
Authorial Voice	319	(1)
Adopting a Writing Style	320	(2)
An Ethical Issue: Creating Something From Nothing	322	(2)
Design Check: Who Did What? How? When?	324	(1)
Results and Discussion	324	(2)
Balancing Description and Analysis	324	(1)
Try This! Describe, Then Analyze	325	(1)
Identifying and Presenting Organizing Patterns	325	(1)
Using Participants' Quoted Material	326	(1)
Drawing and Supporting Conclusions	326	(1)
Revisiting Your Analysis	326	(1)
Finishing the Qualitative Research Report	327	(2)
Title	327	(1)
Using the APA Style Manual	328	(1)
Summary	329	(1)
Key Terms	329	(1)
APPENDIXES
A Personal Report of Communication Apprehension	330	(3)
B Formulas and Steps for Statistical Calculations	333	(19)
C Random Numbers Table	352	(3)
D Sample Protocol for Experimental Study	355
Glossary	1	(1)
References	1	(1)
Author Index	1	(3)
Subject Index	4