A modern reference to the principles, operation, and applications of the most important compressor types Thoroughly addressing process-related information and a wider variety of the major compressor types of interest to process plants, Compressors and Modern Process Applications uniquely covers the systematic linkage of fluid processing machinery to the processes they serve. This book is a highly practical resource for professionals responsible for purchasing, servicing, or operating compressors. It describes the main features of over 300 petrochemical and refining schematics and associated process descriptions involving compressors and expanders in modern industry. The organized presentation of this reference covers first the basics of compressors and what they are, and then progresses to important operational and process issues. It then explains the underlying principles, operating modes, selection issues, and major hardware elements for compressors. Topics include double-acting positive displacement compressors, rotary positive displacement compressors, understanding centrifugal process gas compressors, power transmission and advanced bearing technology, centrifugal compressor performance, gas processing and turbo-expander applications, and compressors typically found in petroleum refining and other petrochemical processes. Suitable for plant operation personnel, machinery engineering specialists, process engineers,as well as undergraduate students of this subject, this book's special features include: * Flow schematics of modern process units and processes used in gas transport, gas conditioning, petrochemical manufacture, and petroleum refining * Listings of licensors for each process on the flow schematics * Identification of each process flow schematic of compressors, cryogenic, and hot gas expanders at their respective locations * Important overview of surge control, estimating compressor performance, applications for air separation and gas processing plants, petroleum refinery issues, and important criteria that govern compressor selection and application Placing hundreds of associated process flow schematics at the fingertips of professionals and students, author and industry expert Heinz Bloch facilitates comprehension of the workings of various petrochemical, oil refining, and product upgrading processes that are served by compressors.

HEINZ P. BLOCH is a consulting engineer in Iowa and a licensed professional engineer in New Jersey and Texas. He served over twenty years in various machinery engineering capacities at Exxon and retired from his position as Exxon Chemical's Regional Machinery Specialist in the United States. Mr. Bloch has authored seventeen books and more than 340 papers and articles, conducted over 500 technical courses, helped found Texas A&M's International Pump Users Symposium, and served as an editor on Hydrocarbon Processing magazine, and as chairman of the yearly International Process and Power Plant Reliability Conference.

Arvind Godse is chartered Mechanical engineer with in -depth exposure to Rotating Machinery & association with leading organizations viz. Engineers India, Kuwait National Petroleum, Qatar Petroleum, PDO / TEBODIN Oman.

Preface

ix

Illustration Credits and Photo Acknowledgments

xi

PART I

Positive Displacement Compressors

3

(18)

Reciprocating Compressors

3

(1)

Major Components Described

3

(9)

Crankcase

3

(1)

Crankshaft

4

(1)

Connecting Rod

4

(1)

Crosshead

4

(1)

Lubrication

4

(1)

Cylinder Materials

5

(1)

Cylinder Sizing

5

(1)

Cylinder Cooling

6

(4)

Pistons

10

(1)

Piston Rods

10

(1)

Packing

11

(1)

Gaskets

12

(1)

Comparison between Reciprocating and Centrifugal Compressors

12

(4)

Gas Properties and Process Conditions

13

(1)

Gas Analysis

13

(1)

Molecular Weight

14

(1)

Polytropic Exponent

14

(1)

Flow Rate

15

(1)

Inlet and Discharge Pressure

16

(1)

Temperature

16

(1)

Heat Balance

16

(1)

Series and Parallel Operation

16

(5)

Rotary Compressors as a Category

21

(18)

Helical Screw Compressors

21

(1)

Overview of Operating Principles and Basic Construction

21

(3)

Considerations for Screw Compressor Staging

24

(5)

Reasons for Using Screw Compressors

29

(1)

Oil-Free Versus Oil-Flooded Twin-Screw Compressors

29

(1)

Bearings

29

(1)

Shaft Seals

30

(1)

Internal Seals

30

(1)

Screw Compressor Volume Control

30

(1)

Control by Variable Speed

30

(1)

Bypass

31

(1)

Full-Load/Idling Speed Governor

31

(1)

Suction Throttle Control

31

(1)

Volume Control for Screw Compressors Equipped with Oil Injection (Oil-Flooded Compressors)

31

(1)

Screw Compressor Auxiliaries

31

(2)

Suction Scrubber and Drain Seal Drum

31

(1)

Primary Oil Separator and Oil Reservoir

32

(1)

Principles of Oil Separation

32

(1)

Secondary Separator

33

(1)

Oil Cooler

33

(1)

Compressor Aftercooler and Discharge Scrubber

33

(1)

Oil Purifier or Oil Conditioner

33

(1)

Issues with H2S in All Gas Compressors

33

(1)

Considerations for Upstream Separators

33

(6)

Process Example

33

(1)

Reviewing the Problem and Outlining the Solution

34

(1)

Contaminant Removal

34

(1)

Design Peculiarities of Self-Cleaning Reverse-Flow Mist Coalescers

34

(1)

Conventional Equipment Examined

35

(2)

Case Histories Involving KTCs and Claimed ``Equivalents''

37

(1)

Gas Analysis and Its Value

37

(1)

Upstream Separator Recommendations Can Be Generalized

37

(2)

Understanding Centrifugal Process Gas Compressors

39

(36)

Where Centrifugal Compressors Excel

39

(1)

Centrifugal Compressors, Fans, or Blowers?

40

(1)

Centrifugal Compressor Configurations and Components

40

(35)

Horizontally Split Compressor Casings

40

(2)

Vertically Split Compressor Casings

42

(5)

Compression Stages Versus Sections

47

(1)

Compressor Impellers

47

(2)

Impeller Geometry

49

(2)

Impeller Arrangements on Compressor Shafts

51

(1)

Diffusers

52

(3)

Internal Labyrinths

55

(1)

Bearings

56

(6)

Shaft Seals

62

(4)

Dry Gas Seals and Support Systems: Benefits and Options

66

(1)

Life Cycle Cost Comparison of Dry Gas Versus Wet Sealing Systems

67

(1)

Principles of Dry Gas Seals and Construction Features

67

(3)

Dry Gas Seal Support Systems

70

(2)

Reliable Auxiliaries are Important for Dry Gas Seals

72

(3)

Power Transmission and Advanced Bearing Technology

75

(20)

Couplings for Rotary Positive-Displacement and Centrifugal Compressors

75

(4)

Coupling Functional Parameters Types, and Configurations

75

(3)

Marine-Style Couplings and Reduced Moment Geometries

78

(1)

Coupling Assembly and Selection Summary

78

(1)

Magnetic Bearings for Compressor Rotors

79

(7)

Early Applications of Magnetic Bearings

79

(1)

Operating Principles of Active Magnetic Bearings Explained

79

(2)

Load Capacity

81

(1)

Magnetic Bearing Hardware

81

(1)

Radial Magnetic Bearings

81

(1)

Magnetic Thrust Bearings

82

(1)

Auxiliary Bearings

82

(1)

Magnetic Bearing Control System

83

(2)

Technology Status and Case Histories

85

(1)

Case History No. 1---Cycle Gas Compressor Used for Polyethylene Production

85

(1)

Case History No. 2---Natural Gas Storage Compressor

85

(1)

Application Summary

86

(1)

Externally Pressurized Bearings

86

(1)

General Condition Monitoring of Process Gas Compressors

87

(1)

Combining Troubleshooting and Continuous Monitoring of Dynamic Data for Critical Machinery

88

(7)

Overview of Recent Developments

88

(1)

Innovative Data Acquisition Tools

88

(1)

Early Case Study Tells the Story

89

(1)

Current Application Explained

89

(4)

Anticipating Future Developments

93

(2)

Centrifugal Compressor Performance

95

(16)

Compression Processes and Efficiencies: Polytropic Versus Isothermal

95

(1)

Specific Speed (Ns) and the Flow Coefficient (φ)

95

(12)

Flow Coefficient (φ)

95

(1)

Pressure Coefficient or Head Coefficient (ψ)

96

(1)

Mach Number

97

(2)

Surge and Surge Control

99

(8)

Variable Speed Operation and Surge Issues

107

(1)

Development of Head

107

(1)

Estimating Compressor Performance

107

(1)

Controls

107

(2)

Integrating Machine and Process Control Strategies

108

(1)

Throughput Control Options

109

(2)

Testing

111

(4)

Centrifugal Compressor Testing

111

(1)

Types of Performance Tests

111

(2)

The ASME Power Test Code (ASME PTC 10)

113

(2)

Future Value of Performance Testing

114

(1)

Application Considerations

115

(12)

Applications and Industry Sectors

115

(1)

Air Separation Plants and Compressors for Instrument and Plant Air Services

115

(1)

Natural Gas Processing Industry

115

(2)

Offshore Industry

117

(1)

Refining Industry

118

(1)

Petrochemicals and Fertilizers

119

(5)

Steel Industry

124

(2)

Special Applications

126

(1)

Using API-617 as a Purchase Specification for Centrifugal Compressors

127

(6)

Compressor Revamps

131

(2)

PART II

133

(196)

Segment 1 Gas Processing

157

(52)

Segment 2 Refining Processes

209

(60)

Segment 13 Petrochemical Processes

269

(60)

References

329

(2)

Index

331

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