Conditionals

by Declerck, Renaat; Reed, Susan

• ISBN13: 9783110171440
• ISBN10: 3110171449
• Format: Hardcover
• Copyright: 2001-12-01
• Publisher: Mouton De Gruyter

Summary

This book is an extremely detailed and comprehensive examination of conditional sentences in English, using many examples from actual language-use. The syntax and semantics of conditionals (including tense and mood options) and the functions of conditionals in discourse are examined in depth, producing an all-round linguistic view of the subject which contains a wealth of original observations and analyses. Not only linguists specializing in grammar but also those interested in pragmatics and the philosophy of language will find this book a rewarding and illuminating source.

Table of Contents

Acknowledgements	v
Abbreviations	vi
Table of contents	vii
Introduction	1	(18)
Aim and scope of the work	1	(5)
`Factual' versus `closed' conditions	1	(2)
Pseudo-Q conditionals	3	(1)
Categorizations	4	(2)
The structure of the book	6	(2)
Terminological preliminaries	8	(7)
The definition of `conditional (sentence)'	8	(1)
The terms `situation' and `actualize'	9	(1)
`P-clause' and `Q-clause'	10	(1)
P vs [+p] or [-p]; Q vs [+q] and [-q]	10	(3)
`[Name]-P conditionals' and `[Name]-Q conditionals'	13	(1)
Terminological confusion	13	(2)
Symbols and conventions	15	(1)
Symbols and typeface	15	(1)
Conventions	16	(1)
The illustrative material	16	(3)
Conditional connecting devices	19	(18)
If	19	(2)
Connectors expressing a necessary condition	21	(1)
Unless	21	(1)
In case	21	(4)
Lest	25	(1)
Even if and only if	26	(1)
Whether...or	26	(1)
Supposing, assuming, etc	26	(1)
Zero-conjunction plus inversion	27	(1)
Comparative conditionals	28	(1)
Other clauses with a conditional connotation	28	(7)
Extraposed subject clauses	28	(1)
Restrictive relative clauses	29	(1)
Adverbial time clauses	29	(1)
Clauses introduced by after (when contrasted with before)	29	(1)
Before-clauses	29	(1)
Until-clauses	30	(1)
{As/so} long as	31	(1)
The momen((that), as soon as, once	31	(1)
When-clauses	31	(4)
Paratactic conditionals	35	(1)
Conclusion	35	(2)
Some preliminary terminology	37	(28)
`Subordinate' clauses	37	(1)
`Fully integrated' clauses	38	(1)
Restrictive postscript-P conditionals	39	(1)
Actualization conditionals	39	(2)
`(Non)assertoric' vs `(non)assertive' clauses	41	(1)
Inferential conditionals	42	(3)
Direct inferentials	42	(2)
Indirect inferentials	44	(1)
Implicative conditionals	45	(2)
Case-specifying-P conditionals	47	(2)
Purely case-specifying-P conditionals	48	(1)
Actualization conditionals	48	(1)
Direct inferentials	48	(1)
Set-identifying P-clauses	49	(1)
Conditionals and possible worlds	50	(4)
Factual vs theoretical P-clauses	50	(1)
Neutral vs nonneutral theoretical P-clauses	51	(2)
Types of nonneutral theoretical P-clauses	53	(1)
Closed-P conditionals	53	(1)
Open-P conditionals	54	(1)
Tentative-P conditionals	54	(1)
Counterfactual-P conditionals	54	(1)
Irrealis, nonfactual, counterfactual and imaginary P-clauses	54	(2)
Pseudo-Q conditionals	56	(1)
`Denied conditionals' vs `conditioned denials'	57	(1)
Specificational (focusing) conditional structures	58	(1)
The three canonical tense patterns of conditionals	59	(1)
Conclusion	60	(5)
The possible-world typology of conditionals	65	(46)
Factual-P conditionals	67	(4)
Past repetitive habits	67	(1)
Performative P-clauses	68	(1)
Factuality indirectly following from counterfactuality	69	(1)
Counterfactual unless and if...not	69	(1)
Counterfactual `ad absurdum' conditionals	70	(1)
Other kinds of counterfactual `indirect inferentials'	70	(1)
Non-case-specifying-P conditionals with factual P-clause	70	(1)
Seemingly factual P-clauses	70	(1)
Theoretical-world conditionals	71	(37)
Definition	71	(1)
Neutral-P conditionals	72	(1)
Conditionals with nonspecific reference in the P-caluse	73	(1)
Gnomic (universal, omnitemporal) Q-clauses	74	(1)
Conditionals whose Q-clause expresses a present habit	75	(1)
Set-identifying-P conditionals	76	(1)
If you say so	77	(1)
Anchoring-P conditionals	78	(1)
Imaginary-P conditionals	79	(1)
Nonneutral theoretical-P conditionals	80	(1)
Closed-P conditionals	81	(1)
Definition	81	(1)
Closed-P conditionals with P relating to another nonfactual world	82	(1)
Closed P-clauses are echoic	83	(1)
Functional types of closed-P conditionals	84	(4)
Modalizers in the Q-clause of a closed-P conditional	88	(1)
Ostensibly closed P-clauses	89	(2)
Open-P conditionals	91	(2)
Tentative-P conditionals	93	(1)
Definition	93	(2)
Other forms of tentativeness	95	(2)
Indirect tentative-P conditionals: the type I wouldn't be surprised if he came	97	(2)
Counterfactual-P conditionals	99	(1)
Definition	99	(1)
Counterfactual patterns	99	(1)
Counteridentical-P conditionals	100	(2)
Interrogative Q-clauses in possible-world conditionals	102	(1)
The possible world(s) of P and Q	103	(2)
Modalization	105	(2)
The negation effected by counterfactuality	107	(1)
Summary	108	(3)
The use of tenses in possible-world conditionals	111	(86)
The tense model	111	(27)
Time-spheres and sectors	112	(1)
`Full situation' vs `predicated situation'	113	(1)
Time of the predicated situation	114	(1)
`Time of orientation' and `time of the situation'	115	(1)
Temporal domain	116	(1)
`T-relations' vs `W-relations'	117	(1)
T-relations	118	(1)
W-relations	118	(1)
Direct and indirect binding	119	(3)
Sloppy simultaneity	122	(1)
Shift of temporal perspective	123	(1)
`Present Perspective System' vs `Future Perspective System'	124	(9)
The future tense and modality	133	(5)
The use of tenses in factual-P conditionals	138	(4)
P-clauses referring to a past or pre-present repetitive habit	138	(1)
Performative P-clauses	139	(1)
Factual #P-clauses	139	(1)
Counterfactual {unless/if...not}-clauses	140	(1)
Ad absurdum conditionals	140	(1)
Other indirect inferentials	141	(1)
The use of tenses in neutral-P conditionals	142	(3)
The use of tenses in closed-P conditionals	145	(9)
Introduction	145	(1)
Tense combinations in closed-P conditionals	145	(2)
Closed P-clause functioning as Q-clauses	147	(1)
Closed P-clauses using the Future Perspective System	148	(3)
Closed-P inferentials in (free) indirect speech	151	(1)
Closed-P inferentials expressing a past conclusion about an anticipated past P-situation	151	(1)
Closed-P inferentials expressing a past conclusion about an anterior P-situation	152	(1)
Closed P-clauses combining with a Q-clause referring to another possible world	152	(2)
The use of tenses in open-P conditionals	154	(13)
General rule	154	(2)
Open P-clauses referring to the post-present	156	(5)
Open-P inferentials with a P-clause in the past tense	161	(1)
Open-P inferentials with a P-clause in the past perfect	162	(1)
Open-P inferentials with a P-clause in the past perfect and a Q-clause in the conditional perfect	162	(1)
Open P-clause combining with a tentative Q-clause	163	(1)
Open P-clause combining with a counterfactual Q-clause	164	(1)
Open P-clause with `futurate' present tense	164	(2)
Open P-clause using the Present Perspective System and combining with a factual Q-clause?	166	(1)
Open P-clause with shall	166	(1)
The use of tenses in tentative-P conditionals	167	(10)
Introduction	167	(1)
Time reference in tentative-P conditionals	167	(1)
Tentative P-world treated as a past domain	168	(1)
Canonical pattern 2 conditionals	169	(3)
The conditional tense expressing T-posteriority in the Q-clause	172	(1)
Past counterpart of the Present Perspective System in the P-clause	172	(1)
Past counterpart of the Future Perspective System in the P-clause	173	(1)
Tentative P-clauses combining with a factual Q-clause	174	(2)
Pattern 1 conditionals with a tentative-P meaning	176	(1)
The use of tenses in counterfactual-P conditionals	177	(18)
Introduction	177	(1)
Time reference in counterfactual pattern 3 conditionals	177	(6)
Time reference in counterfactual pattern 2 conditionals	183	(1)
Mixing verb forms from pattern 2 and pattern 3 in order to express anteriority	183	(1)
Possible tense combinations in counterfactual-P conditionals	183	(1)
Past/pre-present P-situation + present Q-situation	184	(1)
Past/pre-present P-situation + post-present Q-situation	185	(1)
Past/pre-present P-situation + past/pre-present Q-situation	186	(1)
Extended present P-situation + past/pre-present Q-situation	187	(1)
Both clauses referring to the present or extended present	188	(1)
Extended present P-situation + post-present Q-situation	189	(1)
Post-present P-situation + past/pre-present Q-situation	189	(1)
Post-present P-situation + present Q-situation	190	(1)
Post-present P-situation + post-present Q-situation	190	(1)
Counterfactual P-clauses functioning as Q-clauses	190	(1)
The time of the conclusion	191	(1)
Counterfactual P-clause combining with Q-clause from another possible world	192	(1)
`Had + perfect infinitive' in the Q-clause of pattern 3	192	(1)
The `double pluperfect' in the P-clause of pattern 3	192	(2)
Would have in the P-clause of a pattern 3 conditional	194	(1)
Conclusion	195	(2)
Modalized case-specifying conditionals	197	(34)
The subjunctive	197	(4)
The present subjunctive in the P-clause	197	(1)
The past subjunctive in the P-clause	198	(3)
Modal auxiliaries in the Q-clause	201	(2)
Q-clauses combining with a factual, neutral or closed P-clause	201	(1)
Q-clauses combining with an open-P clause	201	(1)
Q-clauses combining with a tentative or counterfactual P-clause	202	(1)
Ordinary modal auxiliaries in the P-clause	203	(12)
Ordinary modals in closed P-clauses	203	(4)
Ordinary modals in neutral and factual P-clauses	207	(1)
Ordinary modals in open, tentative or counterfactual P-clauses	208	(1)
The ordinary modal use of be to in P-clauses	208	(1)
Ordinary modal uses of will and would in P-clauses	209	(6)
The use of special-P modals in P-clauses	215	(14)
Were to in P-clauses	215	(4)
Should in P-clauses	219	(6)
Be to and be going to in P-clauses	225	(2)
Verb forms after in case and lest	227	(2)
Conclusion	229	(2)
The three canonical tense patterns	231	(26)
Canonical pattern 1 conditionals	231	(2)
Canonical pattern 2 conditionals	233	(14)
Tentative-P conditionals that do not have the pattern 2 form	234	(1)
Nontentative-P pattern 2 conditionals	235	(1)
Pattern 2 as a result of backshifting pattern 1	236	(3)
Pattern 2 with counterfactual P and counterfactual Q	239	(4)
Pattern 2 with counterfactual P and imaginary Q	243	(1)
Pattern 2 with imaginary P and imaginary Q	244	(2)
Pattern 2 with a factual P-clause	246	(1)
Pattern 2 resulting from using would instead of will have	247	(1)
Pattern 2 with modal would in the Q-clause	247	(1)
Canonical pattern 3 conditionals	247	(9)
Pattern 3 resulting from backshifting	248	(1)
Imaginary pattern 3 conditionals	249	(1)
Counterfactual P + imaginary Q	250	(1)
Imaginary P + imaginary Q	251	(4)
Pattern 3 with closed P-clause and putative would in the Q-clause	255	(1)
Conclusion	256	(1)
The relation between the theoretical world and the actual world	257	(20)
Introduction	257	(7)
Epistemic modalizers	264	(1)
The importance of the relation between the theoretical world and the actual world	265	(8)
Counterfactual indirect inferentials	265	(1)
The implicature of counterfactuality of Q in counterfactual-P conditionals	266	(1)
Cancelling of the implicature of counterfactuality of Q	266	(4)
The communicative function of the counterfactual-P conditional	270	(1)
Counterfactual-P conditionals with Q-clause expressing a disposition	270	(2)
Counterfactual-P conditionals with Q-clause expressing advice	272	(1)
Nonassertoric interrogative Q-clauses	273	(2)
Conclusion	275	(2)
A typology of case-specifying P-clauses	277	(42)
Actualization conditionals	277	(7)
Definition	277	(1)
Types of actualization-conditioning P-clauses	277	(1)
Actualization-triggering P-clauses	278	(1)
Preclusive-P actualization conditionals	278	(2)
Actualization-licensing-P conditionals	280	(1)
Nonpreclusive-P actualization conditionals	280	(2)
Actualization conditionals introduced by in case	282	(1)
`Prerequisite-P' vs `restrictive postscript-P'	283	(1)
Inferential conditionals	284	(20)
Definition	284	(1)
Direct inferentials	285	(1)
Standard direct inferentials	285	(3)
Backtrackers	288	(2)
Nonpreclusive-P inferentials	290	(1)
Inferentials involving an inferential bridge between P and Q	290	(1)
The epistemological basis of direct inference	291	(1)
Extrapolating from a necessary truth	291	(1)
Extrapolating from a general pattern	292	(1)
Extrapolating via inferential bridges	292	(1)
Nonextrapolating inferentials	293	(1)
Case-specifying-P conditionals that cannot be standard direct inferentials	294	(1)
Postscript premise-expressing P-clauses	295	(1)
Indirect inferentials	296	(1)
`Ad absurdum' inferentials	296	(5)
Indirect inferentials with counterfactual verb form in the Q-clause	301	(1)
Indirect inferentials with contradictory Q-clause	301	(1)
Assertoric interrogative Q-clause incompatible with factual P-clause	302	(2)
Pseudo-Q inferentials	304	(1)
Purely case-specifying-P conditionals	304	(12)
Purely case-specifying-P conditionals specifying the circumstances under which the Q-situation actualizes	305	(1)
Purely case-specifying P-clauses specifying the case(s) in which Q is true	306	(1)
Purely case-specifying P-clause specifying the circumstances under which the perception of the Q-situation may take place	306	(1)
Purely case-specifying P-clause defining the conditions under which one comes to the conclusion that Q is true	307	(1)
Purely case-specifying P-clause merely specifying the cases in which Q is true	308	(1)
Set-identifying P-clauses	309	(7)
Conclusion	316	(3)
Rhetorical conditionals	319	(48)
Utterance conditionals	319	(11)
Relevance conditionals	320	(5)
Anchoring-P conditionals	325	(1)
Performative-Q conditionals	326	(1)
Metalinguistic-Q conditionals	327	(1)
Nonassertoric-Q utterance conditionals	327	(2)
Commenting-Q utterance conditionals	329	(1)
Comparing conditionals	330	(10)
Definition	330	(1)
Subtypes of comparing conditionals	331	(1)
Similarity-expressing conditionals	331	(1)
Contrastive conditionals	332	(1)
Gradation conditionals	333	(1)
Concessive-P conditionals	334	(4)
Reference to the post-present in comparing conditionals	338	(2)
Commenting-P conditionals	340	(18)
Downtoning-P conditionals	340	(2)
Boosting-P conditionals	342	(1)
Evaluating-P conditionals	343	(1)
Truth-evaluating-P conditionals	344	(3)
Content-evaluating-P conditionals	347	(2)
Presupposition-evaluating-P conditionals	349	(4)
Metalinguistic-P conditionals	353	(2)
Speech condition-defining-P conditionals	355	(1)
Reminding-P conditionals	356	(1)
Hedging-P conditionals	357	(1)
Pseudo-implicative conditionals	358	(1)
Pleonastic conditionals	359	(1)
Conclusion	360	(7)
Summary	360	(4)
Syntactic integration	364	(3)
Syntactically marked conditional structures	367	(54)
Postscript-P conditionals	367	(2)
Conditional anacolutha	369	(1)
Nominal-Q conditionals	369	(1)
Displaced-P conditionals	370	(2)
Stacked-P conditionals	372	(3)
Conditionals with coordinated P-clauses or Q-clauses	375	(1)
Syntactically incomplete conditionals	376	(13)
Covert-P conditionals	376	(1)
The type would {like/love/hate/prefer} to	377	(1)
Would/Should for tentativeness	378	(4)
Q-clauses implying if I were you	382	(1)
Conditionals without real link between the overt P-clause and the Q-clause	382	(1)
Covert-Q conditionals	383	(1)
Conditionals whose Q-clause is deleted to avoid repetition	383	(1)
Covert-Q conditionals of the purely case-specifying-P type	384	(1)
If only	384	(1)
Presupposition-evaluating Q-less P-clauses	385	(1)
Q-less conditionals as indignant exclamations	386	(1)
Q-less if-clauses used for weak manipulation	386	(1)
If you say so	386	(1)
Q-less if-clauses as independent questions	387	(1)
Exclamations of surprise	387	(1)
Pseudo-Q conditionals	387	(2)
Conditionals with a reduced P-clause or Q-clause	389	(2)
Reduced-P conditionals	389	(1)
Reduced-Q conditionals	390	(1)
Implicit P-conditionals	391	(4)
Implicit-Q conditionals	395	(1)
Semi-nominal-P conditionals	396	(5)
Extraposed-P conditionals	396	(4)
Nonextraposed-semi-nominal-P conditionals	400	(1)
Specificational anacolutha	400	(1)
Split conditionals	401	(1)
Paratactic conditionals	401	(7)
Paratactic conditionals with an imperative P-clause + or	401	(2)
Paratactic conditionals with a (pseudo-)imperative P-clause + and	403	(2)
Paratactic conditionals with finite P-clause + finite and/or-clause	405	(2)
Paratactic conditionals with a quantified NP as P-constituent	407	(1)
Paratactic conditionals of the form `NP or NP'	407	(1)
Asyndetic paratactic conditionals	407	(1)
Specificational (focusing) conditional structures	408	(11)
Definition	408	(1)
Type 1: specificational P-clause	409	(1)
Type 2: specificational Q-clause	410	(1)
Type 3: `premodified reduced it-clefts' and variants	411	(4)
Type 4: Q-variable + nonspecificational P-value	415	(2)
Type 5: Q-variable + specificational P-value	417	(2)
Conclusion	419	(2)
Sufficient and/or necessary conditions	421	(26)
Preliminaries	421	(2)
(In)dispensable P-clauses	423	(2)
Utterance-conditionals	425	(1)
A/T-conditions	425	(19)
The definition of `necessary' and `sufficient' A/T-condition	425	(1)
The origins of necessity and/or sufficiency understandings	426	(8)
Sufficiency and/or necessity interpretations of A/T-conditions	434	(1)
P is interpreted as a sufficient and necessary condition for Q	434	(6)
P is interpreted as a sufficient, but not necessary, condition for Q	440	(1)
P is interpreted as a necessary, but not sufficient, condition for Q	441	(2)
P is interpreted as neither necessary nor sufficient for Q	443	(1)
Summary	444	(3)
Uses and interpretations of unless	447	(14)
Syntactically integrated nonirrealis unless-clauses	447	(5)
Syntactically nonintegrated nonirrealis unless-clauses	452	(1)
Unless in irrealis conditionals	453	(6)
Unless in imaginary-P irrealis conditionals	456	(2)
Counterfactual unless	458	(1)
Summary	459	(2)
The meanings and uses of even if	461	(12)
The meaning of even if in implicative conditionals	461	(7)
The expectation understanding plus the nonpreclusive understanding	462	(2)
Scalarity	464	(3)
Even if precludes the implicature that P is necessary for Q	467	(1)
Nonimplicative even if-conditionals	468	(3)
Purely concessive even if-clauses	469	(1)
Commenting even if-clauses	469	(2)
Conclusion	471	(2)
Glossary	473	(40)
References	513	(14)
Author's index	527	(2)
Subject index	529