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Richard and Jo Anne Vacca are professors emeriti in the Department of Teaching, Leadership, and Curriculum
Studies in the College and Graduate School of Education, Health, and Human Services at Kent State University. They met as undergraduate English majors at SUNY–Albany and have been partners ever since. Jo Anne taught middle school language arts in New York and Illinois and received her doctorate from Boston University. Rich taught high school English and earned his doctorate at Syracuse University. He is a past president of the International Reading Association. The Vacca's live in Vero Beach, Florida, where they golf, volunteer, and walk their toy poodles, Tiger Lily and Gigi Marie. They especially enjoy visiting and traveling with their daughter, Courtney; son-in-law, Gary; and grandsons, Simon, Max, and Joe.
Maryann Mraz is an associate professor in the Reading and Elementary Education Department of North Carolina at Charlotte (UNCC). She earned her Ph.D . from Kent state University under the guidance of Jo Anne and Rich Vacca. Maryann is a board member of the Association of Literacy Educators and Researchers (ALER) and the author of numerous articles, chapters, and instructional materials on Literacy education, including the co-authored books The Literacy Coach's Companion and Independent Reading. She teaches graduate courses in literacy education and provides professional development workshops to teachers and literacy coaches.
PART ONE / Learners, Literacies, and Texts
CHAPTER 1
Literacy Matters 1
ORGANIZING PRINCIPLE 1
CHAPTER OVERVIEW 1
FRAME OF MIND 2
Content and Process: Two Sides of the Same Coin 3
Balancing Content and Process in Content Area Classrooms 3
Pressure on Teachers 4
Teaching and Learning with Texts 5
Literacy in the Twenty-First Century 6
New Literacies, New Ways of Learning 8
Adolescent Literacy 9
BOX 1.1 / EVIDENCE-BASED BEST PRACTICES: Fifteen Elements
of Effective Adolescent Literacy Programs 11
Disciplinary Literacy in Perspective 12
BOX 1.2 / RTI FOR STRUGGLING ADOLESCENT LEARNERS: Implications
for Content Literacy 16
Reading to Learn 17
Reading as a Meaning-Making Process 17
Reading as a Strategic Process 18
Reading as a Comprehension Process 20
Prior Knowledge and Comprehension: A Closer Look 22
LOOKING BACK, LOOKING FORWARD 24
MINDS ON 25
HANDS ON 26
e -RESOURCES 27
CHAPTER 2
Learning with New Literacies 28
ORGANIZING PRINCIPLE 28
CHAPTER OVERVIEW 29
FRAME OF MIND 30
An Overview of New Literacies 31
From the Arts to Media: Expanding Definitions of Literacy 32
Nonlinear Characteristics of New Literacies 32
Linking In-School with Out-of-School Literacies 33
BOX 2.1 / VOICES FROM THE CLASSROOM: William, Fifth-Grade Teacher 34
New Literacies and Content Standards 35
Thinking and Learning with New Literacies 36
Thinking and Learning in Multimodal Environments 37
BOX 2.2 / RTI FOR STRUGGLING ADOLESCENT LEARNERS: Strategy Intervention
and New Literacies 38
Learning How to Evaluate Websites 39
Blogs, Wikis, and Nings 39
Blogs 39
Wikis and Nings 42
Internet Workshops 44
Internet Inquiries 44
An Internet Inquiry in Elementary Science 45
Internet Projects 46
WebQuests 46
Writing to Learn in a New Literacies Paradigm 47
LOOKING BACK, LOOKING FORWARD 48
MINDS ON 49
HANDS ON 49
e -RESOURCES 49
CHAPTER 3
Culturally Responsive Teaching
in Diverse Classrooms 50
ORGANIZING PRINCIPLE 50
CHAPTER OVERVIEW 51
FRAME OF MIND 52
BOX 3.1 / VOICES FROM THE CLASSROOM: Tim, High School Science Teacher 53
Teaching and Learning in Multicultural Classrooms 54
Teaching for Cultural Understanding 55
Integrating Multicultural Literature Across the Curriculum 56
BOX 3.2 / EVIDENCE-BASED BEST PRACTICES: ABCs of Cultural Understanding
and Communication 57
Multicultural Books: A Closer Look 58
Ways of Knowing in a Culturally Responsive Classroom 60
Funds of Knowledge 61
Characteristics of Culturally Responsive Instruction 62
BOX 3.3 / EVIDENCE-BASED BEST PRACTICES: Drawing on Students’
Funds of Knowledge in Science and Mathematics 63
BOX 3.4 / EVIDENCE-BASED BEST PRACTICES: Drawing on Students’
Funds of Knowledge in the Arts 64
Linguistic Differences in Today's Schools 66
Dialect Use in the Classroom 66
English Language Learning 67
Bilingual and ESL Programs 69
What Makes Content Literacy Difficult for English Learners? 69
Books for English Learners 70
BOX 3.5 / RTI FOR STRUGGLING ADOLESCENT LEARNERS: Responding
to the Language Needs of English Learners 71
BOX 3.6 / Picture Books in Mathematics 73
Sheltered Instruction for English Learners 73
The SIOP Model 74
Adapting Instruction in Content Classrooms 76
Provide Comprehensible Input 76
Use Strategies for Vocabulary Development 76
Differentiate Between Intensive and Extensive Reading 78
Use the Repeated Reading Strategy 79
Use Learning Strategies for Active Engagement 80
Use Writing Strategies 81
LOOKING BACK, LOOKING FORWARD 82
MINDS ON 83
HANDS ON 83
e -RESOURCES 83
CHAPTER 4
Assessing Students and Texts 84
ORGANIZING PRINCIPLE 84
CHAPTER OVERVIEW 85
FRAME OF MIND 86
High-Stakes Testing and Authentic Approaches to Assessment 87
High-Stakes Testing: Issues and Concerns 87
Legislation, Standards, and Accountability 90
BOX 4.1 / RTI FOR STRUGGLING ADOLESCENT LEARNERS: Identifying Students
at Risk for Failure 91
Standardized Testing: What Teachers Need to Know 92
Authentic Assessment: The Teacher's Role 94
BOX 4.2 / VOICES FROM THE CLASSROOM: Cindy, Tenth-Grade Social Studies
Teacher 97
Portfolio Assessment 98
Adapting Portfolios to Content Area Classes 99
BOX 4.3 / EVIDENCE-BASED BEST PRACTICES: Steps in the Implementation
of Portfolios 100
Checklists and Interviews 102
Rubrics and Self-Assessments 107
Assessing Text Difficulty 108
Content Area Reading Inventories 108
Levels of Comprehension 110
Rates of Comprehension 112
Readability 113
Lexile Levels 113
The Fry Graph 114
Cloze Procedure 114
Readability Checklist 117
LOOKING BACK, LOOKING FORWARD 120
MINDS ON 121
HANDS ON 122
e -RESOURCES 123
CHAPTER 5
Planning Instruction
for Content Literacy 124
ORGANIZING PRINCIPLE 124
CHAPTER OVERVIEW 125
FRAME OF MIND 126
Explicit Strategy Instruction 127
Strategy Awareness and Exploration 128
Strategy Demonstration and Modeling 129
Guided Practice 129
Strategy Application 130
Planning Lessons 130
Lesson Plan Formats 130
B—D—A Instructional Framework 131
Before-Reading Activities 134
During-Reading Activities 136
After-Reading Activities 138
Some More Examples of B—D—A—Centered Lessons 138
Middle School Science Class 139
High School French Class 141
Middle School Music Class 141
Planning Units of a Study 144
Components of a Well-Designed Unit 145
Content Objectives 145
Instructional Activities and Text Resources 146
An Inquiry/Research Emphasis in Units of Study 146
Steps and Stages Involved in Inquiry Projects 147
BOX 5.1 / EVIDENCE-BASED BEST PRACTICES: Procedures for Guiding Inquiry/
Research Projects 149
A Multiple-Text Emphasis in Units of Study 150
Planning Collaborative Interactions 152
Cooperative Learning 152
Jigsaw Groups 152
Student Teams Achievement Divisions (STAD) 153
Learning Circles 153
Group Investigation 154
Group Retellings 154
Small-Group Processes 155
Group Size 156
Group Composition 156
Group Goals and Tasks 156
Positive Interdependence 157
Group Roles and Division of Labor 158
Planning Discussions 159
Guided Discussion 159
Reflective Discussion 160
Creating an Environment for Discussion 160
Arrange the Classroom to Facilitate Discussion 160
Encourage Listening 161
Establish a Goal for Discussion 161
Focus the Discussion 161
Avoid Squelching Discussion 162
LOOKING BACK, LOOKING FORWARD 162
MINDS ON 163
HANDS ON 163
e -RESOURCES 165
PART TWO / Instructional Practices and Strategies
CHAPTER 6
Activating Prior Knowledge
and Interest 166
ORGANIZING PRINCIPLE 166
CHAPTER OVERVIEW 167
FRAME OF MIND 168
Self-Efficacy and Motivation 169
BOX 6.1 / RTI FOR STRUGGLING ADOLESCENT LEARNERS: Strategy Interventions
for Active Engagement and Comprehension 169
BOX 6.2 / E-mail from Jacquinne Reynolds 171
Arousing Curiosity 173
Creating Story Impressions 173
BOX 6.3 / VOICES FROM THE CLASSROOM: Aaron, Eighth-Grade U.S. History
Teacher 174
BOX 6.4 / EVIDENCE-BASED BEST PRACTICES: Story Impressions 176
Establishing Problematic Perspectives 176
Guided Imagery 179
Making Predictions 180
BOX 6.5 / EVIDENCE-BASED BEST PRACTICES: PreP Procedure 181
Anticipation Guides 181
Adapting Anticipation Guides in Content Areas 182
Imagine, Elaborate, Predict, and Confirm (IEPC) 184
Question Generation 187
Active Comprehension 187
ReQuest 188
Expectation Outlines 189
BOX 6.6 / EVIDENCE-BASED BEST PRACTICES: ReQuest Procedure 190
Your Own Questions 191
LOOKING BACK, LOOKING FORWARD 191
MINDS ON 192
HANDS ON 192
e -RESOURCES 193
CHAPTER 7
Guiding Reading Comprehension 194
ORGANIZING PRINCIPLE 194
CHAPTER OVERVIEW 195
FRAME OF MIND 196
Modeling Comprehension Strategies 197
Using Think-Alouds to Model Comprehension Strategies 197
Develop Hypotheses by Making Predictions 198
Develop Images 198
Share Analogies 199
Monitor Comprehension 199
Regulate Comprehension 199
Using Reciprocal Teaching to Model Comprehension Strategies 200
Using Question—Answer Relationships (QARs) to Model Comprehension
Strategies 200
BOX 7.1 / EVIDENCE-BASED BEST PRACTICES: QAR Awareness in a High School
English Class 203
Questioning the Author (QtA) 204
Planning a QtA Lesson 204
BOX 7.2 / EVIDENCE-BASED BEST PRACTICES: Steps in a QtA Lesson 205
Guiding the QtA Lesson 205
Instructional Strategies 206
The KWL Strategy 206
Procedures for KWL 207
KWL Examples 209
Discussion Webs 211
Procedures for the Discussion Web 213
Discussion Web Examples 214
Guided Reading Procedure (GRP) 216
Procedures for GRP 216
A GRP Example 217
Intra-Act 218
Procedures for Intra-Act 218
An Intra-Act Example 221
Directed Reading—Thinking Activity (DR—TA) 222
A DR—TA Example 223
Reading Guides 225
Comprehension Levels 226
Three-Level Comprehension Guides 227
Constructing Three-Level Comprehension Guides 229
A Three-Level Comprehension Guide Example 230
LOOKING BACK, LOOKING FORWARD 231
MINDS ON 232
HANDS ON 232
e -RESOURCES 233
CHAPTER 8
Developing Vocabulary and Concepts 234
ORGANIZING PRINCIPLE 234
CHAPTER OVERVIEW 235
FRAME OF MIND 236
BOX 8.1 / RTI FOR STRUGGLING ADOLESCENT LEARNERS: Responsiveness
to Vocabulary and Concept Development 240
Experiences, Concepts, and Words 241
What Are Concepts? 241
Concept Relationships: An Example 241
Using Graphic Organizers to Make Connections Among Key Concepts 243
A Graphic Organizer Walk-Through 244
Showing Students How to Make Their Own Connections 249
Activating What Students Know About Words 250
Word Exploration 250
Brainstorming 250
List—Group—Label 251
Word Sorts 252
Knowledge Ratings 253
BOX 8.2 / EVIDENCE-BASED BEST PRACTICES: Two Examples of Knowledge
Ratings 254
Defining Words in the Context of Their Use 255
Vocabulary Self-Collection Strategy 255
Concept of Definition Word Maps 256
Reinforcing and Extending Vocabulary Knowledge and Concepts 258
Semantic Feature Analysis (SFA) 258
BOX 8.3 / VOICES FROM THE CLASSROOM: Tracy , Tenth-Grade Biology
Teacher 260
Categorization Activities 262
Concept Circles 262
Magic Squares 264
Vocabulary-Building Strategies 266
Using Context to Approximate Meaning 266
Typographic Clues 267
Syntactic and Semantic Clues 267
Context-Related Activities 270
Modified Cloze Passages 270
OPIN 270
Word Structure 271
Using the Dictionary as a Strategic Resource 273
LOOKING BACK, LOOKING FORWARD 275
MINDS ON 275
HANDS ON 276
e -RESOURCES 277
CHAPTER 9
Writing Across the Curriculum 278
ORGANIZING PRINCIPLE 278
CHAPTER OVERVIEW 279
FRAME OF MIND 280
BOX 9.1 / RTI FOR STRUGGLING ADOLESCENT LEARNERS: Responsive Teaching
for At-Risk Writers 282
Integrating Reading and Writing 282
Reading and Writing as Composing Processes 282
Reading and Writing as Exploration, Motivation, and Clarification 284
Writing to Learn (WTL) 284
Microthemes 285
POVGs 286
Contents xvii
Unsent Letters 289
Biopoems 291
Admit Slips and Exit Slips 292
Academic Journals 293
Response Journals 294
Historical Character Journals 295
Sketchbooks in Art 295
Math Journals 298
Double-Entry Journals (DEJs) 300
Purposes for Using DEJs 301
Examples of DEJs in English and Math Classrooms 302
Learning Logs 304
Learning Logs in Math Classrooms 304
Writing in Disciplines 306
RAFT Writing 306
BOX 9.2 / VOICES FROM THE CLASSROOM: Wendy, Middle School Teacher
and Literacy Coach 307
Research-Based Writing 310
Guiding the Writing Process 311
The Discovery Stage 311
Drafting 312
Revising 313
LOOKING BACK, LOOKING FORWARD 313
MINDS ON 314
HANDS ON 315
e -RESOURCES 315
CHAPTER 10
Studying Text 316
ORGANIZING PRINCIPLE 316
CHAPTER OVERVIEW 317
FRAME OF MIND 318
The Importance of Text Structure 319
External Text Structure 319
Internal Text Structure 320
Description 320
BOX 10.1 / VOICES FROM THE CLASSROOM: David, High School Civics
and Economics Teacher 321
Sequence 322
Comparison and Contrast 322
Cause and Effect 322
Problem and Solution 323
Signal Words in Text Structure 323
Graphic Organizers 324
BOX 10.2 / EVIDENCE-BASED BEST PRACTICES: Graphic Organizers 326
Using Graphic Organizers to Reflect Text Patterns 327
Comparison-and-Contrast Matrix 327
Problem-and-Solution Outline 327
Network Tree 330
Series-of-Events Chain 330
Using Questions with Graphic Organizers 331
Semantic (Cognitive) Mapping 333
Writing Summaries 335
Using GRASP to Write a Summary 335
BOX 10.3 / EVIDENCE-BASED BEST PRACTICES: Writing a Summary 336
Polishing a Summary 338
Making Notes, Taking Notes 339
Text Annotations 339
Note-Taking Procedures 341
Reading Logs 341
Annotations 342
T-Notes 343
Cornell Notes 343
Study Guides 346
Text Pattern Guides 346
Selective Reading Guides 348
LOOKING BACK, LOOKING FORWARD 350
MINDS ON 351
HANDS ON 352
e -RESOURCES 353
CHAPTER 11
Learning with
Trade Books 354
ORGANIZING PRINCIPLE 354
CHAPTER OVERVIEW 355
FRAME OF MIND 356
Textbooks in Today's Classrooms 357
fm.indd xix 12/8/2009 12:31:37 PM
Reasons Teachers Use Textbooks 357
Problems with Using Textbooks 358
Inconsiderate Texts 359
Inaccuracy 359
Inappropriate Reading Level 359
Negative Student Reactions 359
Why Use Trade Books? 360
Learning with Trade Books 362
Nonfiction Books 363
BOX 11.1 / EVIDENCE-BASED BEST PRACTICES: Appreciating Art and Artists
Through the Use of Trade Books 366
BOX 11.2 / EVIDENCE-BASED BEST PRACTICES: Linking Physical Education
with Literacy Learning 369
Picture Books 369
Fiction Books 373
Books for Unmotivated Readers 375
BOX 11.3 / EVIDENCE-BASED BEST PRACTICES: Exploring Different Points
of View Toward Historical Events 376
Instructional Strategies for Using Trade Books 377
Creating Classroom Libraries and Text Sets 377
BOX 11.4 / VOICES FROM THE CLASSROOM: Garrett, Eighth-Grade American
History Teacher 378
Self-Selected Reading 380
Teacher Read-Alouds 382
Group Models for Studying Trade Books 384
Whole-Group/Single-Book Model 384
Small-Groups/Multiple-Books Model 385
Individual Inquiry Model 385
Reader Response Strategies 386
Writing as a Reader Response 387
Reflective Writing 387
Post-It Notes 388
Expository Texts as Models for Writing 388
Process Drama as a Heuristic 389
Improvisational Drama 390
Pantomime 390
Tableau 391
Readers Theatre 391
Idea Circles 392
Getting Started with Idea Circles 393
Using Technology to Respond to Literature 394
Blogging 395
Googledocs 395
LOOKING BACK, LOOKING FORWARD 396
MINDS ON 396
HANDS ON 397
e -RESOURCES 397
CHAPTER 12
Literacy Coaching 398
ORGANIZING PRINCIPLE 398
CHAPTER OVERVIEW 399
FRAME OF MIND 400
Literacy Coaching in Perspective 400
Current Expectations for Literacy Coaches 401
BOX 12.1 / RTI FOR STRUGGLING ADOLESCENT LEARNERS: The Role of Literacy
Coaches 402
Standards for Literacy Coaching 404
Literacy Coaches and Teachers 406
Building Learning Communities: A Closer Look 406
Conferring with Teachers 407
Supporting Professional Development 409
BOX 12.2 / VOICES FROM THE CLASSROOM: Lynne, Middle School Literacy
Coach 410
BOX 12.3 / VOICES FROM THE CLASSROOM: Jean, High School Literacy Coach 412
Literacy Coaches and Students 413
Supporting Struggling Readers 413
Supporting English Language Learners 414
Supporting Effective Assessment Practices 415
LOOKING BACK, LOOKING FORWARD 416
MINDS ON 417
HANDS ON 417
e -RESOURCES 417
APPENDIX A: Ordeal by Cheque 418
APPENDIX B: Affixes with Invariant Meanings 422
APPENDIX C: Commonly Used Prefixes with
Varying Meanings 425
APPENDIX D: Graphic Organizers with Text Frames 427
References 430
Name Index 457
Subject Index 463
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