Coral Reef Restoration Handbook

by Precht; William F.

• ISBN13: 9780849320736
• ISBN10: 0849320739
• Edition: 1st
• Format: Hardcover
• Copyright: 2006-05-25
• Publisher: CRC Press

Summary

"… this book is the first to describe, in detail, the art and science of coral reef restoration. It is to be hoped that the information that can be gleaned within the pages of this book will set a path towards continued preservation of this valuable underwater treasure to be used, appreciated, and experienced for future generations."-- Senator Bob Graham (retired), Miami Lakes, Florida, from the ForewordMost of what we know about the rehabilitation of coral reef systems stems from efforts to repair reefs injured by vessels that have run aground. To date, however, there is a paucity of published literature regarding the efficacy and/or failure of coral reef restoration techniques. While most of the literature that is available comes from meeting abstracts, workshops and technical memoranda, these papers and reports have forged a scientific framework that can help guide future efforts.The Coral Reef Restoration Handbook is the first published volume devoted to the science of coral reef restoration. It offers a scientific, conceptual framework along with practical strategies for reef assessment and restoration. Contributors from a variety of disciplines discuss engineering, geological, biological, and socioeconomic factors to create a text that is designed to guide scientists and resource managers in the decision-making process from initial assessment of the injury through conceptual restoration design, implementation, and monitoring. An excellent selection of relevant case studies is utilized to illustrate concepts and challenges inherent in the process of restoration.This volume gives reef scientists and managers the opportunity to glean significant information from previous efforts. It provides them with the opportunity to build on the lessons learned and develop successful restoration efforts into the future.

Table of Contents

Chapter 1 Coral Reef Restoration: The Rehabilitation of an Ecosystem under Siege	1	(24)
William F. Precht and Martha Robbart
1.1 Introduction	1	(2)
1.2 Coral Reef Restoration — A Guide	3	(16)
1.2.1 Why Restore?	6	(1)
1.2.2 Identification of the Degrading Agents	6	(1)
1.2.3 A Legal Basis for Restoration	6	(1)
1.2.4 Natural Resource Damage Assessment	7	(1)
1.2.5 Crime Scene Investigation	8	(1)
1.2.6 Injury Assessment	8	(1)
1.2.7 Emergency Restoration	8	(1)
1.2.8 Economic Assessment of Damages	9	(1)
1.2.9 Selection of Processes to Be Restored	9	(2)
1.2.10 Analysis of Restoration Impacts on the Landscape Scale	11	(1)
1.2.11 Restoration Design	12	(1)
1.2.12 Success Criteria	13	(1)
1.2.13 Goal Setting	13	(1)
1.2.14 A Scientific Basis for Restoration	14	(2)
1.2.15 Compensatory Restoration	16	(1)
1.2.16 Long-Term Monitoring and Adaptive Management	17	(2)
1.3 Conclusions	19	(1)
Acknowledgments	20	(1)
References	20	(5)
Chapter 2 A Thousand Cuts? An Assessment of Small-Boat Grounding Damage to Shallow Corals of the Florida Keys	25	(14)
Steven J. Lutz
2.1 Introduction	25	(1)
2.2 Materials and Methods	26	(3)
2.3 Results	29	(3)
2.3.1 Geographic Distribution	29	(1)
2.3.2 Reef Sites	30	(1)
2.3.3 Head/Cluster Size	31	(1)
2.3.4 Depth of Head/Clusters	32	(1)
2.3.5 Mooring Buoys	32	(1)
2.4 Discussion and Conclusions	32	(4)
2.4.1 Geographic Distribution	33	(1)
2.4.2 Reef Size	33	(1)
2.4.3 Head/Cluster Size	33	(1)
2.4.4 Depth of Head/Clusters	33	(1)
2.4.5 Mooring Buoys	34	(1)
2.4.6 Impacts to Individual Coral Heads	34	(1)
2.4.7 Trend in High User Pressure	34	(1)
2.4.8 Management Considerations	34	(2)
2.5 Conclusion	36	(1)
Acknowledgments	36	(1)
References	36	(3)
Chapter 3 Coral Reef Restoration: An Overview	39	(22)
Beth Zimmer
3.1 Introduction	39	(1)
3.2 Restoration Techniques	40	(7)
3.2.1 Indirect Action	40	(1)
3.2.2 Reef Repair	41	(3)
3.2.2.1 Triage	41	(1)
3.2.2.2 Restoring Structural Integrity	42	(1)
3.2.2.3 Restoring Topographic Complexity	43	(1)
3.2.3 Transplantation	44	(2)
3.2.3.1 Alternative Transplantation Techniques	45	(1)
3.2.3.2 Transplantation Questions and Research Needs	46	(1)
3.2.4 Artificial Reefs	46	(1)
3.3 Cost of Coral Reef Restoration	47	(1)
3.4 Success of Coral Restoration Techniques	48	(1)
3.4.1 Indirect Action	48	(1)
3.4.2 Reef Repair	48	(1)
3.4.3 Transplantation	48	(1)
3.4.4 Artificial Reefs	49	(1)
3.5 Future of Coral Restoration Research	49	(1)
3.6 Summary	50	(1)
References	50	(11)
Chapter 4 Natural Resilience of Coral Reef Ecosystems	61	(16)
Norman J. Quinn and Barbara L. Kojis
4.1 Coral Reef Communities in Altered States	61	(1)
4.2 Accelerated Reef Restoration	62	(2)
4.3 Geographic Variability in Coral Reef Resilience and Implications for Coral Reef Restoration	64	(8)
4.3.1 Caribbean	64	(4)
4.3.1.1 Jamaica	64	(3)
4.3.1.2 United States Virgin Islands	67	(1)
4.3.1.3 Implications for Restoration	67	(1)
4.3.2 Pacific	68	(15)
4.3.2.1 South Pacific	68	(1)
4.3.2.2 Marianas Archipelago, Western Pacific	69	(1)
4.3.2.3 Implications for Restoration	70	(2)
4.4 Summary	72	(1)
Acknowledgments	72	(1)
References	72	(5)
Chapter 5 Compensatory Restoration: How Much Is Enough? Legal, Economic, and Ecological Considerations	77	(18)
Sharon K. Shutler, Stephen Gittings, Tony Penn, and Joe Schittone
5.1 Introduction	77	(1)
5.2 Natural Resource Damages Statutory Scheme	78	(1)
5.3 Compensatory Restoration Scaling	79	(1)
5.4 Compensatory Claims within the Legal Framework	80	(2)
5.5 Coral Ecological Services	82	(1)
5.6 Restoration of Ecological Service Flows	83	(5)
5.6.1 Injuries and Primary Restoration Options	83	(1)
5.6.2 Coral Recovery Horizons	84	(1)
5.6.3 Framework Injury	84	(1)
5.6.3.1 Framework Fracturing	84	(1)
5.6.3.2 Framework Crushing	84	(1)
5.6.3.3 Framework Displacement	84	(1)
5.6.4 Living Coral	85	(15)
5.6.4.1 Toppling	85	(1)
5.6.4.2 Abrasion	86	(1)
5.6.4.3 Gouging	86	(1)
5.6.4.4 Fragmentation	87	(1)
5.6.4.5 Crushing	87	(1)
5.7 Research Needs	88	(1)
Acknowledgment	89	(1)
References	89	(6)
Chapter 6 Applied Modeling of Coral Reef Ecosystem Function and Recovery	95	(24)
Gregory A. Piniak, Mark S. Fonseca, W. Judson Kenworthy, Paula E. Whitfield, Gary Fisher, and Brian E. Julius
6.1 Introduction: Why Model Coral Reef Ecosystems?	95	(2)
6.2 The Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary: Model Needs and Context	97	(1)
6.3 Balancing Biological Realism and Restoration Reality	97	(1)
6.4 Deciding What to Model	98	(2)
6.5 Coral Injury Recovery Model (IRMc): Structure, Assumptions, and Applications	100	(3)
6.5.1 Model Structure	100	(1)
6.5.2 Data Inputs and Model Assumptions	101	(2)
6.6 IRMc: Theoretical Exercises	103	(7)
6.6.1 Effect of Spatial Geometry	103	(1)
6.6.2 Effect of Life History Strategy	104	(1)
6.6.3 Sensitivity to Demography and Disturbance	105	(3)
6.6.4 Intended Application of the IRMc in the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary	108	(1)
6.6.5 Application to Other Coral Reef Systems	109	(1)
6.7 Concluding Remarks and Future Directions	110	(1)
Acknowledgments	110	(1)
References	110	(9)
Chapter 7 If You Build It, Will They Come? Toward a Concrete Basis for Coral Reef Gardening	119	(24)
Les S. Kaufman
7.1 Introduction	119	(2)
7.2 Coral Reef Gardening in the Context of Reef Restoration	121	(15)
7.2.1 Task 1: Restore and Create Wave-Resistant Structures	121	(3)
7.2.2 Task 2: Induce Circumstances on and around the Structure That Are Conducive to the Establishment and Growth of Living Framework Builders	124	(8)
7.2.3 Task 3: Speed Succession toward a Community Dominated by Framework Builders That Will Continually Renew and Grow the Structure	132	(1)
7.2.4 Task 4: Craft Community Ontogeny So as to Maximize the Value and Sustainability of Goods and Services Produced by Restored or Created Reef	133	(3)
7.3 Conclusion	136	(1)
Acknowledgments	137	(1)
References	137	(6)
Chapter 8 Legal Protections for Coral Reefs	143	(24)
Mary Gray Davidson
8.1 Introduction	143	(1)
8.2 U.S. Law	144	(7)
8.2.1 The National Marine Sanctuaries Act	144	(2)
8.2.2 The Antiquities Act	146	(1)
8.2.3 Marine Protected Areas	147	(2)
8.2.4 U.S. Coral Reef Task Force	149	(1)
8.2.5 Endangered Species Act	149	(2)
8.2.6 Conclusion	151	(1)
8.3 International Protections for Coral Reefs	151	(8)
8.3.1 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea	153	(1)
8.3.2 Agenda 21	154	(1)
8.3.3 Convention on Biological Diversity	154	(2)
8.3.4 Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species	156	(2)
8.3.5 United Nations Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage	158	(1)
8.3.6 Conclusion	158	(1)
8.4 Recommendations for Improving the Legal Protection of Coral Reefs	159	(3)
8.4.1 Establish No-Take Zones	160	(1)
8.4.2 Modify Fishing Practices	160	(1)
8.4.3 Add Reef Species to CITES	160	(1)
8.4.4 Increase World Heritage Site Designations	161	(1)
8.4.5 Advance U.S. Practices	161	(1)
8.5 Conclusion	162	(1)
References	162	(5)
Chapter 9 Streamlined Injury Assessment and Restoration Planning in the U.S. National Marine Sanctuaries	167	(26)
Lisa C. Symons, Alice Stratton, and William Goodwin
9.1 Introduction	168	(1)
9.2 Scope and Scale of the Issue	169	(1)
9.3 NOAA's Coral Assessment and Restoration Experience	170	(1)
9.4 Assessment and Restoration Impediments	171	(2)
9.5 Injury Types and Injury Assessments	173	(7)
9.5.1 Restoration Alternatives and Implementation	177	(1)
9.5.2 Programmatic Environmental Impact Statement (PEIS) Alternatives	178	(1)
9.5.3 Physical Restoration Alternatives	179	(1)
9.6 Biological Restoration	180	(2)
9.7 Conclusions	182	(1)
Appendix A: Injury Assessment Protocols	182	(8)
9.A.1 Injury Location: Vessel Still Aground	182	(2)
9.A.1.1 Georeferencing and Site Marking	182	(1)
9.A.1.2 Vessel's Direction of Travel and Compass Bearings	183	(1)
9.A.1.3 Description of Grounding Incident	183	(1)
9.A.1.4 Plotting on a Navigational Chart	183	(1)
9.A.1.5 Overflights	183	(1)
9.A.1.6 Samples/Photographs and Video	183	(1)
9.A.2 Removal of Vessel	184	(1)
9.A.3 Injury Location: Vessel No Longer Aground	184	(2)
9.A.3.1 dGPS Coordinates, Including the Location of the Grounding Site or the Path the Vessel Traveled	184	(1)
9.A.3.2 Vessel's Direction of Travel and Compass Bearings	184	(1)
9.A.3.3 Description of Grounding Incident	185	(1)
9.A.3.4 Plotting on a Navigational Chart	185	(1)
9.A.3.5 Search Patterns by Boat	185	(1)
9.A.3.6 Overflight	185	(1)
9.A.4 Injury Assessment	186	(8)
9.A.4.1 Types of Possible Injury	186	(1)
9.A.4.2 Establish Baseline	186	(1)
9.A.4.3 Site Characterization	187	(1)
9.A.4.4 Quantification of Injuries	188	(1)
9.A.4.5 Qualitative Documentation	189	(1)
9.A.4.6 Field Note Management	190	(1)
9.A.4.7 Create Photo Mosaic of Injured Area	190	(1)
9.A.4.8 Daily Field Notes	190	(1)
References	190	(3)
Chapter 10 Aesthetic Components of Ecological Restoration	193	(12)
Jessica Tallman
10.1 Introduction	193	(1)
10.2 Artificial Reefs	194	(6)
10.2.1 Materials of Opportunity	194	(1)
10.2.2 Purpose-Designed Reefs	195	(4)
10.2.3 Underwater Artists	199	(1)
10.3 Recommendations	200	(2)
Acknowledgments	202	(1)
References	203	(2)
Chapter 11 International Trends in Injury Assessment and Restoration	205	(14)
Greg E. Challenger
11.1 Introduction	205	(1)
11.2 Vessel Groundings	205	(1)
11.3 Injury	206	(2)
11.4 Legislation	208	(1)
11.5 Assessment	209	(2)
11.6 Restoration	211	(3)
11.7 Discussion	214	(1)
References	215	(4)
Chapter 12 Lessons Learned from Experimental Key-Species Restoration	219	(16)
Margaret W. Miller and Alma M. Szmant
12.1 Introduction	219	(1)
12.2 Sexual Propagation and Seeding of Broadcast-Spawning Corals	220	(7)
12.2.1 Acropora palmata	221	(2)
12.2.2 Montastraea spp	223	(1)
12.2.3 Larval Culture	223	(4)
12.2.4 Seeding Efforts	227	(1)
12.3 Restocking of Diadema antillarum in the Florida Keys	227	(3)
12.4 Conclusions	230	(1)
Acknowledgments	231	(1)
References	232	(3)
Chapter 13 Cooperative Natural Resource Damage Assessment and Coral Reef Restoration at the Container Ship Houston Grounding in the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary	235	(22)
George P. Schmahl, Donald Deis, and Sharon K. Shutler
13.1 Background	236	(3)
13.1.1 The Grounding	236	(2)
13.1.2 Preliminary Assessment	238	(1)
13.1.3 Cooperative Natural Resource Damage Assessment	238	(1)
13.2 Prerestoration Activities	239	(505)
13.2.1 Emergency Coral Salvage	239	(1)
13.2.2 Injury Assessment	239	(505)
13.2.2.1 Site Preparation and Mapping	239	(1)
13.2.2.2 Injury Classification	240	(500)
13.2.2.3 Detailed Area Assessments	740
13.2.2.4 Injury Summary	242	(502)
13.3 Restoration	744
13.3.1 Restoration Plan	244	(1)
13.3.2 Coral Reattachment	245	(1)
13.3.3 Rubble Stabilization	246	(1)
13.3.4 Substrate Stabilization/Habitat Replacement	246	(501)
13.3.5 Compensatory Restoration	747
13.4 Monitoring	249	(2)
13.4.1 Monitoring Plan	249	(1)
13.4.2 Hurricane Georges	249	(1)
13.4.3 Monitoring Effectiveness	250	(1)
13.5 Evaluation	251	(4)
13.5.1 Restoration Performance	251	(2)
13.5.1.1 Project Timeline	251	(1)
13.5.1.2 Coral Reattachment	251	(1)
13.5.1.3 Rubble Stabilization	252	(1)
13.5.1.4 Substrate Stabilization	252	(1)
13.5.1.5 Recruitment	252	(1)
13.5.2 Cooperative Natural Resource Damage Assessment	253	(2)
13.6 Recommendations	255	(1)
References	256	(1)
Chapter 14 Restoration Outcomes of the Fortuna Reefer Grounding at Mona Island, Puerto Rico	257	(14)
Andrew W. Bruckner and Robin J. Bruckner
14.1 Introduction	257	(1)
14.2 Initial Restoration	258	(2)
14.3 Approach to Evaluate Fragment Survivorship	260	(7)
14.3.1 Early Patterns of Fragment Survival	260	(1)
14.3.2 Midcourse Correction	261	(1)
14.3.3 Patterns of Survival and Recovery over 6 Years	261	(1)
14.3.4 Causes of Mortality	262	(1)
14.3.5 Effects of Size, Orientation, and Attachment Site	262	(2)
14.3.6 Effect of Depth	264	(3)
14.4 Efficacy of the Restoration	267	(1)
14.5 Conclusions	268	(1)
Acknowledgments	268	(1)
References	269	(2)
Chapter 15 Review of Coral Reef Restoration and Mitigation in Hawaii and the U.S.-Affiliated Pacific Islands	271	(20)
Paul L. Jokiel, Steven P. Kolinski, John Naughton, and James E. Maragos
15.1 Introduction	272	(1)
15.2 Overview of Projects in Hawaii and the U.S.-Affiliated Pacific Islands	273	(10)
15.2.1 Direct Action	273	(8)
15.2.1.1 Reef Repair	273	(1)
15.2.1.2 Coral Transplantation	274	(5)
15.2.1.3 Seeding Reefs with Larvae, Juveniles, and Fragments	279	(1)
15.2.1.4 Increase Habitat Area	279	(1)
15.2.1.5 Modification of Habitat	280	(1)
15.2.1.6 Mitigation through Removal of Harmful Organisms	280	(1)
15.2.2 Indirect Action	281	(1)
15.2.2.1 Kaneohe Bay, Hawaii	281	(1)
15.2.2.2 Kahoolawe, Hawaii	281	(1)
15.2.2.3 Kahe Point, Oahu, Hawaii	281	(1)
15.2.2.4 Hamakua, Hawaii	282	(1)
15.2.3 Negotiated Financial Settlement or "Tradeoffs"	282	(1)
15.2.3.1 Agana Harbor (Guam)	282	(1)
15.2.3.2 Honolulu, Hawaii	282	(1)
15.2.3.3 Satawal Island, Yap State, Federated States of Micronesia	282	(1)
15.2.4 Strategic Reserve Network	283	(1)
15.3 Management Action	283	(1)
15.3.1 Prevention	283	(1)
15.3.1.1 Public Awareness	283	(1)
15.3.1.2 Sound Management Practices	283	(1)
15.3.1.3 Appropriate Enforcement Practices	283	(1)
15.3.1.4 Assessment and Monitoring	283	(1)
15.3.2 Mitigation	284	(33)
15.3.2.1 Eliminate or Reduce Habitat Loss	284	(1)
15.3.2.2 Conduct Economic Analysis	284	(1)
15.3.2.3 Alternative Environmental Actions	284	(1)
15.3.2.4 Install Preventative Measures	284	(1)
15.4 Cost-Effectiveness of Management Actions	284	(1)
15.5 Summary	285	(1)
Acknowledgments	286	(1)
References	286	(5)
Chapter 16 The Coral Gardening Concept and the Use of Underwater Nurseries: Lessons Learned from Silvics and Silviculture	291	(12)
Baruch Rinkevich
16.1 Restoration through the "Coral Reef Gardening" Concept	292	(1)
16.2 Corals and Trees — Two Major Framework Building Blocks	293	(1)
16.3 Silvics and Silviculture — Still Many Unresolved Issues	293	(1)
16.4 Reef Restoration Concepts	294	(1)
16.5 A Special Case: Midwater Floating Nursery	295	(2)
16.6 Summary	297	(2)
Acknowledgment	299	(1)
References	299	(4)
Chapter 17 Lessons Learned in the Construction and Operation of Coral Reef Microcosms and Mesocosms	303	(12)
Walter H. Adey
17.1 Introduction	303	(2)
17.2 Caribbean Model (Coral Reef Microcosm)	305	(6)
17.3 The Operational Imperative	311	(1)
17.4 Implications of Microcosm Modeling for Coral Reef Restoration	312	(1)
17.5 Summary	312	(1)
References	313	(2)
Chapter 18 Ethical Dilemmas in Coral Reef Restoration	315	(10)
Rebecca L. Vidra
18.1 Introduction	315	(1)
18.2 Is Restoration the Solution or a "Big Lie"?	316	(1)
18.3 Ethical Dilemmas in the Practice of Restoration	317	(2)
18.3.1 Addressing the Values of Stakeholders: Ecological, Economic, and Educational Goals	317	(1)
18.3.2 Integrating Science into Management Decisions	318	(1)
18.3.3 Conflicts of Interest: Are You a Scientist or an Advocate?	318	(1)
18.3.4 Learning from Failures and Communicating Uncertainty	319	(1)
18.4 Special Challenges for Coral Reef Restoration	319	(2)
18.4.1 Case Study 1: To Restore or Not to Restore?	319	(1)
18.4.2 Case Study 2: Translating Conflicting Results into Management Recommendations	320	(1)
18.5 Conclusions and Recommendations	321	(1)
Acknowledgments	322	(1)
References	322	(3)
Chapter 19 The Volunteer Movement in Coral Reef Restoration	325	(14)
Robin J. Bruckner
19.1 Introduction	325	(1)
19.2 The Importance of Volunteers in Reef Restoration Efforts	326	(4)
19.3 Ingredients for Success: The Importance of Training and Communication	330	(1)
19.4 Volunteer Restoration and Monitoring Case Studies	331	(5)
19.4.1 Removal of Alien Algae from Hawaii's Reefs	331	(2)
19.4.2 Removal of Waste Tires from Reefs off Broward County, Florida	333	(1)
19.4.3 Herbivore Reintroduction and Enhancement of Coral Recruitment	334	(1)
19.4.4 "Corals of Opportunity" — Establishing Coral Nurseries for Use in Restoration	335	(1)
19.4.5 Volunteer Participation in Long-Term Coral Reef Restoration Monitoring Efforts	335	(1)
19.5 Conclusion	336	(1)
Acknowledgments	337	(1)
References	337	(2)
Chapter 20 Monitoring the Efficacy of Reef Restoration Projects: Where Are We and Where Do We Need to Go?	339	(12)
Cheryl Wapnick and Anne McCarthy
20.1 Why Do We Monitor?	340	(1)
20.2 What Does Monitoring Prove?	340	(2)
20.2.1 Functional versus Compliance Success	340	(1)
20.2.2 Examples of Long-Term Monitoring Programs	341	(1)
20.2.2.1 M/V Alec Owen Maitland	341	(1)
20.2.2.2 M/V Elpis	341	(1)
20.2.2.3 M/V Wellwood	342	(1)
20.2.2.4 M/V Houston	342	(1)
20.3 Suggested Monitoring Protocol	342	(4)
20.3.1 Science-Based Monitoring Programs	342	(2)
20.3.2 Specific Design for Each Restoration Site	344	(2)
20.4 Problems to Overcome and Suggested Solutions	346	(2)
20.5 Conclusion	348	(1)
References	348	(3)
Index	351