Corrections A Comprehensive View

by Silverman, Ira; Vega, Manuel

• ISBN13: 9780314045751
• ISBN10: 0314045759
• Edition: 1st
• Format: Hardcover
• Copyright: 1996-01-01
• Publisher: Wadsworth Publishing

Summary

Lively and comprehensive, this book presents a history of prisons, the history of corrections programs, and theories of punishment and corrections. It includes sections on prisoner rights, probation, juvenile corrections, and international corrections systems, Real-life examples and Close-Up features illuminate events or places.

Table of Contents

Part One: Corrections and Criminal Justice	1	(44)
The Correctional Process	2	(17)
Corrections Faces Many Problems	3	(3)
Corrections is Responsible for the Accused and the Convicted	3	(1)
Much of Corrections Is Hidden from Public View	4	(1)
Correctional Facilities Receive Attention Only When Problems Arise	4	(1)
Public Fears Influence Policy	4	(1)
Close Up: The Pitfalls of Early Release	5	(1)
Public Fears Influence Policy	5	(1)
Many of Today's Problems in Corrections Have a Long History	6	(1)
The Criminal Justice Process Is Complicated	6	(2)
Organization of Corrections in the United States	7	(1)
Criminal Justice Has Four Major Components	8	(1)
Each Criminal Justice Sub-System Has Some Correctional Role	8	(6)
The Police Play Various Roles in Corrections	8	(1)
Police Agencies Usually Operate Jails and Detention Facilities	8	(1)
Police Operate Some Correctional Programs	9	(1)
Police Perform a ``Gatekeeper'' Function	9	(1)
Police Provide Information on Offenders to Correctional Personnel	9	(1)
Prosecutors Play Several Roles in Corrections	10	(1)
Prosecutorial Discretion Can Limit the Number and Types of Offenders Entering the System	10	(1)
Prosecutors Serve as Correctional Agents	11	(1)
The Courts Play Several Roles in Corrections	11	(1)
Sentencing Is a Key Court Correctional Function	12	(1)
Judges Serve as Monitors of Conditions in the Correctional System	13	(1)
The Courts Also Operate Correctional Programs	13	(1)
Different Views Regarding the Objectives of Corrections	14	(2)
The Rehabilitative Model Focuses on Treating the Offender	15	(1)
The Justice Model Stresses That Offenders Should Be Punished But in a just and Humane Way	15	(1)
The Utilitarian Model Emphasizes Punishment as a Crime Deterrent	15	(1)
Effectiveness of Models Should Determine Which of Them Are Implemented	16	(1)
The Text Views Contemporary Corrections from a Historical Perspective	16	(1)
Chapter Recap	17	(1)
Review Questions	17	(1)
Test Your Knowledge	17	(2)
Sentencing: The Imposition of Correctional Sanctions	19	(26)
Justifications for Punishment of Offenders	20	(3)
Retribution: The Infliction of Deserved Punishment and Its Painful Consequences on the Criminal	20	(1)
Deterrence: Pain or Other Consequences Will Inhibit Criminal Behavior	20	(1)
The Deterrent Value of Punishment Is Inconclusive	21	(1)
Speed, Severity, and Certainty of Punishment Affect Deterrence	21	(1)
Incapacitation: The Prevention of Future Crime	22	(1)
Three Types of Incapacitation Strategies Have Been Proposed	22	(1)
An Alternative to Incapacitation Is More Severe Sentences for Violent Offenders	23	(1)
A Continuing Purpose of Incarceration Has Been to Reform or Rehabilitate the Offender	23	(1)
Reintegration Is Maintaining or Integrating Offenders into the Community	23	(1)
Types of Dispositions	23	(11)
Monetary Sanctions: Getting Hit in the Wallet	23	(1)
Day Fines Are Imposed on the Basis of the Gravity of the Offense and Offender Income	24	(1)
Restitution Requires That the Offender Make Amends to the Victim or the Community	24	(1)
Community Programs Can Be Residential or Non-residential	24	(1)
Probation Is Serving A Sentence under Supervision in the Community	24	(1)
Residential Community Programs Provide the Most Intense Supervision Short of Prison	25	(1)
Incarceration is Confinement of an Offender in a Prison or Jail	25	(1)
Capital Punishment Is the Ultimate Sanction	26	(3)
The Death Penalty Has Supporters and Detractors	29	(4)
Close Up: Indigents Don't Usually Get The ``Dream Team'' in Capital Cases	33	(1)
Life without Parole Represents an Alternative to Execution	34	(1)
Sentencing Strategies	34	(8)
Indeterminate Sentences Have Been Tied to Rehabilitation	34	(1)
A Determinate Sentence Represents a Fixed Term	35	(1)
Mandatory Sentences are Blamed for Prison Crowding	35	(1)
Some Judges Impose Creative Sentences	36	(1)
Sentencing Reform Focuses on Proportionality, Equity, and Social Debt	36	(1)
Close Up: Three Strikes and You're Out	37	(1)
Close Up: Judges Who Create Sentences	38	(1)
Sentencing Guidelines Are Designed to Create Uniformity	38	(2)
Close Up: ACA President Speaks Out on Sentencing	40	(1)
Sentencing Review Procedures Are Designed to Reduce Disparities	41	(1)
Conclusion	42	(1)
Chapter Recap	42	(1)
Review Questions	42	(1)
Test Your Knowledge	42	(3)
Part Two: Historical Perspective	45	(94)
The Evolution of Punishment	46	(26)
Punishment of Early Criminal Behavior	47	(10)
Early Societies Had Two Classes of Crimes	47	(1)
Public Wrongs Were Equated with Sin	47	(1)
Private Wrongs Initially Required Individual Retaliation But Later Some Responsibility Shifted to the Group	47	(1)
Compensation Provided a Bridge between Private Vengeance and the State	48	(1)
Crimes Become Acts of Revolt against the King	49	(1)
Historically, Offenders Were Punished in Various Ways	49	(1)
Magic and Curses Were Used as Punishments	49	(1)
Some Punishments Were Designed to Humiliate the Offender	49	(1)
Gags Were Used to Both Shame and Constrain Verbal Abuse	49	(1)
The Stocks and Pillories Served to Confine and Display Offenders	50	(1)
Consider This: Should the Stocks be Resurrected?	51	(1)
Branding Marked a Person as an Offender	51	(1)
Corporal Punishments Inflicted Pain on the Offender	52	(1)
Whipping Has a Long and Extensive History	52	(2)
The Ducking Stool Was Generally Used for Scolds and Gossips	54	(1)
Capital Punishment Rids the Community of the Offender	54	(1)
Capital Punishment Has a Long History	55	(1)
The Methods of Execution Were Limited Only by the Imagination	55	(1)
Mutilation and Dismemberment Were Employed for Retribution, Deterrence, and Incapacitation	56	(1)
Banishment Was a Means of Exiling or Enslaving Undesirables	57	(2)
Outlawry: Robin Hood, Fact or Fiction?	57	(1)
Enslavement of Criminals Amounted to Banishment	57	(1)
Maritime Nations Subjected Offenders to Penal Slavery at the Oars	58	(1)
Some Convicts Were Housed in Facilities Called Bagnes	58	(1)
The French Bagnes Were Forerunners of Industrial-Type Prisons	58	(1)
Transportation Was an Intermediate Punishment	59	(6)
The English System of Transportation	59	(1)
Increased Crime Produced by Social and Economic Conditions Caused a Public Outcry for Solutions	59	(1)
The Indenture System: White Servitude in Colonial America	59	(2)
The Revolution Caused a Crisis in England's Punishment System	61	(1)
Confinement at Hard Labor Was Substituted for Transportation: Floating Prisons Emerged as a Temporary Expedient	61	(1)
England Searches for Alternatives to the Prison Hulks	61	(1)
Transportation to Australia: The Search for a New Dumping Ground	61	(1)
Close Up: Lemain: The Historical Antecedant of ``Escape from New York''	62	(2)
The French Transportation System Was More Harsh Than the English System	64	(1)
The Russian Transportation System Was Considered the Most Brutal	64	(1)
People Continue to Advocate the Use of Transportation	65	(1)
Forerunners of Long-Term Imprisonment	65	(5)
Close Up: Indian Youths Banished as Punishment for Their Crimes	66	(1)
The Roots of Imprisonment Can Be Traced to Monasteries and Asylums	66	(1)
Workhouses and Houses of Correction Were Early Forms of Imprisonment	66	(1)
Bridewells Were the First Institutions to Attempt Reform	67	(1)
European Countries Established Workhouses with Many Modeled after One in Amsterdam	67	(1)
Close Up: The World of Early Workhouses Had Many Facets	68	(1)
The Hospice of San Michele Was an Early Juvenile Reformatory	68	(1)
The Maison de Force Had Many Innovative Features	69	(1)
Chapter Recap	70	(1)
Review Questions	71	(1)
Test Your Knowledge	71	(1)
The Development of Prisons in the United States	72	(20)
Methods of Punishment during the Colonial Period	73	(1)
The Search for New Methods of Social Control after the Revolution	73	(1)
Penitentiaries Were Developed as Places to Reform Criminals	73	(1)
The Pennsylvania and Auburn Systems	74	(7)
The Pennsylvania Reformers Experimented with Several Different Systems	74	(1)
The Walnut Street Jail Was the Birthplace of the U.S. Prison System	74	(1)
Eastern Penitentiary Had a Program of Solitary Confinement, Work, and Penitence	75	(1)
The System Devised at Auburn Became the Model for U.S. Prisons	76	(1)
Close Up: Two Views on the Success of the Pennsylvania Model	77	(1)
Auburn Experimented with Three Alternatives	78	(1)
The Auburn Plan of Congregate Work, Silence, and Separate-Cell Confinement Was Adopted as an Acceptable Confinement Method	79	(1)
The Auburn-Pennsylvania Controversy Involved a Debate over Which System Was Superior	79	(1)
The Pennsylvania Model Was Only Used by a Few U.S. Jurisdictions	80	(1)
The Auburn Model Prevailed for Economic Reasons	80	(1)
Auburn-Type Prisons Were Built in Many Jurisdictions	80	(1)
Many States Built Auburn-Type Prisons But Failed to Adhere to Its Rigid Standards	81	(1)
The Auburn Approach Followed a Quasimilitary Model	81	(1)
Antecedents of the Reformatory Movement	81	(6)
Close Up: The Real Versus Ideal Pennsylvania System	82	(2)
Alexander Maconochie's Mark System	84	(1)
The Major Objective of Prison Should Be Reform	84	(1)
The Mark System Enabled Inmates to Work Their Way Out of Prison	84	(1)
The Mark System Was First Applied at Norfolk Island Prison	85	(1)
Punitive Public Views Resulted in Maconochie's Recall	85	(1)
The System Was Also Implemented at Birmingham Borough Prison	86	(1)
Sir Walter Crofton's Irish System Also Influenced the Reformatory	86	(1)
The Irish System Involved Increasing Privileges and Phased Release	86	(1)
The Irish System Reduced Recidivism	86	(1)
The Reformatory System	87	(3)
At the National Congress on Penitentiary and Reformatory Discipline, Prominent Reformers Proposed a New System	87	(1)
Elmira Was the First Reformatory	88	(1)
Inmates Could Progress through a ``Grade'' System, Which Resulted in Early Release	88	(1)
Elmira Had a Number of Innovative Programs	88	(1)
Elmira Had the First Parole System in the United States	88	(1)
Warden Brockway Used Regressive Methods of Discipline	88	(1)
Reformatory Goals Were Never Achieved	89	(1)
Chapter Recap	90	(1)
Review Questions	91	(1)
Test Your Knowledge	91	(1)
Southern Penal Systems	92	(24)
The Pre-Civil War South	93	(1)
Black Codes Were Designed to Control Slaves	93	(1)
Some Southern States Adopted Auburn-Type Prisons	93	(1)
Characteristics of the Prison Population	93	(1)
States Resorted to the Lease System for Economic Reasons	93	(1)
The Post-Civil War Period	94	(6)
The Lease System Solved Various Problems	94	(1)
The Convict Lease System Turned Offenders into Penal Slaves	95	(1)
Close Up: The American Siberia: Life under the Florida Lease System	96	(1)
Chain Gangs Were Used by Some Jurisdictions to Manage Prisoners	97	(2)
Close Up: Life on the Chain Gang: Even Circus Animals Lived Better	99	(1)
Prison Farms and Plantation Prisons	100	(14)
In Mississippi, the Parchman Penal Farm Became the Main Prison	100	(1)
Farm Organization Followed a Plantation Model	100	(1)
The Prison Farm Complex Evolved Over Time and Was Founded on the Twin Goals of Profit and Reformation	101	(2)
The Courts Step in to Propel the System into the Twentieth Century	103	(1)
Arkansas Was Considered the Worst of the Southern Systems	103	(1)
Conditions When Murton Assumed Control Were Horrendous	103	(2)
Close Up: Corporal Punishment Arkansas Style	105	(1)
Murton Tried to Bring the System Nearer to Contemporary Standards	105	(1)
The Totality of Conditions at the Prisons Were Found Constitutionally Unacceptable	106	(1)
Close Up: The Arkansas Prison System in the 1990s	107	(1)
The Texas System Was the Last Major System to Change	107	(1)
The Lessee Period: Inmates Were Assigned to Contractors	107	(1)
The Contract-Lease Period: The State Controlled Inmates and Their Labor Was Contracted to Businesses	108	(1)
The Plantation Farm Period: The State Assumed Total Control of Inmates	108	(1)
The Period of Reform and Stability: TDC Goes from the Worst to the Best System	109	(1)
While Work Continued to Be Stressed, Improvements Were Made in Programming	109	(1)
Close Up: Texas Inmates Learn Marketable Skills	110	(1)
Control and Stability Were Achieved through an Authoritarian System	110	(1)
Inmate-Guards Played an Important Role in the Control System	111	(1)
Control of the BTs Was Lost during a Major Population Increase	112	(1)
The Era of Ruiz v. Estelle Converted Texas into a Modern System	112	(1)
Work Camps and Prison Farms Can be Valuable Components of a Corrections System	113	(1)
Chapter Recap	114	(1)
Review Questions	115	(1)
Test Your Knowledge	115	(1)
The Big House	116	(23)
Big House Prisons Were Harsh and Idle Places	117	(2)
The Big House Era Saw the Demise of the Industrial Prison	117	(2)
The Social World of Inmates	119	(11)
The Big House Population Contained Those Who Were Unsuccessful in Both Their Legal and Illegal Pursuits	119	(1)
The Inmate Subculture Was Influenced by Internal and External Factors	120	(1)
Thief Values Influenced the Convict Code	120	(1)
As Total Institutions, Prisons Limit Freedom and Inflict Deprivations	120	(1)
Life Activities in Prisons Are Not Separated	121	(1)
Inmates Are Deprived of Their Autonomy	121	(1)
Inmates Are Deprived of Privacy	121	(1)
Inmates Are Deprived of Security	121	(1)
Prisons Restrict Contact with the Outside World	122	(1)
Inmates Are Deprived of Many Goods and Services	122	(1)
Inmates Are Deprived of the Opportunity for Meaningful Work	122	(1)
Inmates Are Deprived of Heterosexual Relationships	123	(1)
Inmates Are Relegated to a Subservient Status	123	(1)
Prisonization Is the Socialization of Inmates	124	(1)
Adjustments to Changes in Status Begin at Admission	125	(1)
Ability to Adapt to Prison Varies	125	(1)
The Inmate Status System in the Big House Had Four Levels	125	(1)
Close Up: The Admission Process	126	(1)
The Upper Class Was the Elite	127	(1)
Merchants, Politicians, and Gamblers were Major Figures in the Upper Middle Class	127	(1)
Most Inmates Were in the Middle Class	127	(1)
The Lower Classes Included a Variety of Inmates	127	(1)
Three Common Adaptations to Prison Life	128	(1)
``Doing Time'' Involved Avoiding Trouble and Getting Out Fast	128	(1)
Jailing Involved Becoming Immersed in the Prison World	128	(1)
Gleaners Focused on Self-Improvement	128	(1)
Coping with Prison Deprivation Often Required Improvisation	128	(1)
Food, Drink, and Weapons Made Prison Life Easier	129	(1)
Inmates Developed Adaptations to Their Single-Sex World	129	(1)
Some Inmates Managed to Have Heterosexual Relations	129	(1)
Prison Stupor Was a Form of Psychological Escape	130	(1)
Inmates Suffering from Prison Stupor Were Out of Touch with Reality	130	(1)
Big House Prison Guards	130	(3)
Close Up: The Hole	132	(1)
Guards Used Several Methods of Discipline to Control Inmates	132	(1)
Guards Developed Several Informal Methods of Controlling Inmates	132	(1)
Conditions That Precipitated Disturbances and Riots	133	(1)
Close Up: Prison Riots during the Big House Era	134	(1)
Conflicts Faced by Prison Administrators Regarding the Treatment of Inmates	134	(2)
Pressures Toward Harsh Treatment Came from External and Internal Sources	134	(1)
Pressures Toward Human Practices Came from Reformers	135	(1)
Prison Specialization and Classification Paved the Way for the Development of Treatment Programs	135	(1)
This Era Saw Changes in the Treatment of Inmates	136	(1)
Chapter Recap	136	(1)
Review Questions	137	(1)
Test Your Knowledge	137	(2)
Part Three: Modern Prisons	139	(84)
The Rise and Fall of the Rehabilitative Institution	140	(17)
Social Changes Shaped Rehabilitative Institution	141	(1)
Slum Conditions Restricted Social Mobility	141	(1)
Limited Social Mobility in Urban Slums Had an Impact on the Prison System	142	(1)
The Manner of Dealing with Problems Began to Change	142	(1)
Correctionalists Sought to Change Prisons to Rehabilitation Facilities	142	(1)
Prison Focus Changed from Punishment to Rehabilitation	142	(1)
Several Factors Gave Rise to the Shift to Rehabilitation	142	(1)
Some Changes Were Substantive But Others Were Only Cosmetic	143	(1)
Three Components Characterized the Rehabilitative Institution	143	(7)
Indeterminate Sentencing Made Release Contingent Upon Rehabilitation	143	(1)
Indeterminate Sentences Gave Rise to Several Problems	144	(1)
Classification Was Intended to Diagnose the Causes of an Inmate's Criminal Behavior	145	(1)
The Classification Process Had Several Shortcomings	145	(1)
The Correctional Treatment Program Was to Encompass All Aspects of the Institutional Milieu	145	(1)
Therapeutic Programs Were to Be the Primary Agent for Behavioral and Attitudinal Change	145	(2)
Close Up: An Inmate's Perspective on Group Counseling	147	(1)
Correctional Institutions Had Better Academic and Vocational Programs	147	(1)
Close Up: Synanon at the Nevada State Prison	148	(1)
Different Objectives for Treatment and Custody Staff Caused Conflict	148	(2)
California Made the Best Effort to Develop Rehabilitative Institutions	150	(4)
Soledad Was an Exemplary Rehabilitative Institution	150	(1)
The Physical Plant Made It Different Than Other Prisons	150	(1)
The Routine and Programs Were Designed to Be Conducive to Rehabilitation	151	(1)
The Population Included More Nonwhites	151	(1)
The Social Structure Was Complex	152	(1)
Several Factors Contributed to a Prison Atmosphere That Was Calm and Orderly	153	(1)
Close Up: Patuxent: A Failed Treatment Experiment	154	(1)
The Failure of Rehabilitative Institutions	154	(1)
The Paradox: Better Education Produced System Critics	155	(1)
Chapter Recap	155	(1)
Review Questions	156	(1)
Test Your Knowledge	156	(1)
Ethnic/Racial Division and the Prisoner Movement	157	(19)
The Impact of the Three Social Changes on Prisons	158	(1)
The Authority Revolution Eroded Respect for Authority	158	(1)
The Civil Rights Movement Changed the Relationships between Racial/Ethnic Groups	158	(1)
Protests against Inequities Turned Violent	158	(1)
The Vietnam War Engendered Protest by Significant Segments of the Population	159	(1)
The Ongoing Social Movements Had a Profound Effect on the Prisons	159	(1)
Factors That Caused the Demise of the Traditional Prison Stratification System	159	(4)
A New Self-Image Led Blacks to Develop Racial Pride	159	(1)
The Black Muslim Movement Attracted Many Black Inmates	159	(1)
Initially Muslims Were Viewed as a Threat to Prison Order But Eventually They Became a Stabilizing Force	160	(1)
Race Relations within Prisons Changed	161	(1)
Black Inmates Viewed Both White Inmates and Correctional Officers as a Threat	161	(1)
There Was Some Racial Integration in Prison But Little Interaction	161	(1)
Interracial Tension Increased Prison Violence	161	(1)
State-Raised Youth Cliques Achieved Prominence	161	(1)
Mexican-Americans Also Developed Cliques	162	(1)
The Prisoner Movement: The Politicization of Inmates	163	(2)
The New Left's Focus on Prisons and a New Breed of Inmate Were Primary Factors in the Development of the Prisoner Movement	163	(1)
Inmate Groups Critically Examined Their Circumstances	163	(1)
Black Inmates Moved in a More Radical Direction	163	(1)
Puerto Rican Inmates Embraced the Objectives of the Civil Rights Movement	163	(1)
Chicano Inmates Developed a Sense of Racial Pride	164	(1)
A New Breed of White Inmates Entered the Prisons	164	(1)
Inmates Redefined Their Status to That of Political Prisoners	164	(1)
Some Inmates Adopted a More Radical Position	164	(1)
Prisoner Movement Organizations	165	(3)
Self-Help Groups Focused on Individual Improvement	165	(1)
Prisoner Rights Groups Focused on Improving the Offenders' Constitutional Rights and Social Position	166	(1)
Radical Groups Advocated Changing Society	166	(1)
The Black Panthers Attracted Black Inmates	166	(1)
The Young Lords Were Similar to the Black Panthers	166	(1)
Close Up: The Legacy of the Black Panthers: Fugitive Surfaces Thirteen Years Later	167	(1)
The National Lawyers Guild Provided Legal Assistance as a Means of Furthering the Revolution	167	(1)
Radical Groups Only Had a Few True Inmate Members	168	(1)
Prisoner Movement Activities	168	(6)
Inmate Strikes Were Organized to Focus Public Attention on Prison Conditions	168	(1)
The Attica Revolt: A Riot and a Political Demonstration	169	(1)
A Chaotic Rampage Became an Organized Demonstration	169	(2)
The Retaking of the Prison Was Like a Turkey Shoot	171	(1)
The State Covered Up the Use of Excessive Force and Infliction of Unnecessary Injury	171	(1)
Increasing Defiance and Violence Led to a Crisis in Control	172	(1)
Close Up: Attica Update and Its Legacy	173	(1)
Activities That Occurred Outside the Prison	174	(1)
Chapter Recap	174	(1)
Review Questions	175	(1)
Test Your Knowledge	175	(1)
The Environment of Prisons in the Last Quarter of the Twentieth Century	176	(23)
Factors That Changed the Character of Contemporary Prisons	177	(4)
Overcrowding Became a Chronic Problem	177	(1)
The Causes of Prison Crowding Were Rooted in Social Changes	177	(1)
Crowding Had Several Consequences	178	(1)
A Major Proportion of Prison Population Growth Consisted of Minorities	179	(1)
Several Factors Led to Increases in the Proportion of African-American Inmates	179	(1)
Staff Reactions to the Prisoner Movement Affected Contemporary Prisons	180	(1)
The Prisoner Movement Increased Court Oversight of Prisons	180	(1)
Not All Groups That Were Abolished Threatened Prison Security	180	(1)
The Social Environment of the Prison	181	(10)
Ethnic/Racial Relations Changed in Modern Prisons	181	(1)
Black Inmates Appear to Dominate Whites in Many Prisons	181	(1)
Other Factors Contributed to Racial Tensions	182	(1)
One Effect of Racial Tension Has Been Informal Segregation	182	(1)
Effects of Inmates' Ethnic Backgrounds on Prison Adaptation	182	(1)
Prisons Have Many Prosocial Organizations	183	(1)
Prisoner Organizations: An Important Determinant of Social Structure in Contemporary Prisons	184	(2)
Prisoner Organizations Can Be a Positive Force in the Prison	186	(1)
Close Up: A Jaycee Executive Director Looks at Prison Jaycees	187	(1)
The Social World of the Inmate Has Changed	187	(1)
The Convict Code Has Been Transformed	187	(1)
Close Up: The Unlimited Gavel Club: Inmates Learn Oratorical Skills	188	(1)
The Prison's Social Organization Has a New Tough Inmate Role	188	(1)
Close Up: Twenty Years of Scared Straight	189	(1)
Independents Try to Avoid Entanglements	190	(1)
Withdrawal Is a Way of Avoiding Tension and Violence	191	(1)
The Prison Economy Includes Legal and Illegal Aspects	191	(4)
The Legal Economic System Does Not Meet All Inmate Needs	191	(1)
The Illegal Economy Attempts to Fill the Void	192	(1)
Contraband Fuels the Illegal Economy	193	(2)
Satisfaction of Inmates' Sexual Needs	195	(2)
Various Inmate Sexual Roles	195	(2)
Chapter Recap	197	(1)
Review Questions	197	(1)
Test Your Knowledge	197	(2)
Security Threat Groups and Inmate Gangs	199	(24)
Inmate Gangs Became a Problem in the 1970s and 1980s	200	(1)
Conditions That Permit Gangs to Operate in Prisons	200	(1)
Different Terms Have Been Used to Describe Inmate Groups	200	(1)
The NIC Has Developed Criteria to Identify Disruptive Groups	201	(1)
Organization and Development of STGs and Inmate Gangs	201	(1)
The Proportion of Gang Members is Increasing	202	(1)
Prison Gangs Have Developed According to Five General Patterns	202	(10)
The Development of the Mexican Mafia Reflects a Homeboy Pattern	202	(1)
Conflict between Groups and the Need for Self-Protection Can Spawn Gangs	202	(2)
Outside Gang Members in Illinois Prisons Formed Gangs on the Inside	204	(1)
Prison Gang Members Entering New Institutions Formed Gang Chapters	204	(1)
Copy Cat Groups Emerged in Some Prisons	205	(1)
The Level of Organization of Prison Gangs Varies	205	(1)
Membership Is Based on One or More Factors	206	(1)
Gang Structure Can Follow Various Patterns	206	(1)
Gang Members Can Fall Into One of Several Categories	206	(1)
Gang Codes of Conduct Help to Control Member Behavior	206	(2)
The Recruitment Process Varies from Gang to Gang	208	(1)
Gang Initiations May Require Violence	208	(1)
Group Operations Are Defined by Symbols, Power, Activities, and Communication	208	(1)
Gang Membership Entails a Lifetime Commitment	208	(1)
Gang Identification Includes a Variety of Symbols	209	(1)
Gangs Have Methods for Perpetuating Their Existence and Power	209	(1)
Gang Membership Has Several Benefits	210	(1)
Close Up: How Gangs Use Mail to Communicate	211	(1)
Some Gangs Have Street Affiliates, With a Few Meeting the Criteria for Organized Crime Groups	212	(1)
Prison Gangs Cause a Number of Problems	212	(1)
Problems Occur as a Result of Gangs' ``Business'' Activities	213	(1)
Prison Administrators May Be Ambivalent about Recognizing the Existence of Gangs	213	(1)
Inmate-to-Inmate Problems Are Also Created by Gangs	213	(1)
Control of Prison Gangs Is Achieved in Various Ways	213	(7)
Two Views Characterize How Gangs Are Dealt with by the Prison Administration	214	(1)
One Basis for Gang Policy Is Membership	214	(1)
Another Basis for Gang Policy Is Behavior	214	(1)
The Reaction to Gangs and STGs Often Follows Three Stages	215	(1)
Several Factors Dictate Strategies for Controlling Gangs	215	(1)
The First Priority Is to Establish a Policy and Strategy	215	(1)
Good Intelligence Provides Necessary Information	216	(1)
Jurisdictions Following an STG Specific Management Approach Restrict the Activities of STG Members	217	(1)
Programs and Activities Can Reduce Time Devoted to Gang Activities	218	(1)
Changes in Housing Arrangements Can Also Help	219	(1)
Close Supervision and Staffing of Housing Units Is Essential	219	(1)
Alternatives for Nongang Members	220	(1)
Chapter Recap	220	(1)
Review Questions	221	(1)
Test Your Knowledge	221	(2)
Part Four: Correctional Clientele	223	(46)
Male and Special Category Offenders	224	(23)
U.S. Prison Population Differs from the General U.S. Population	225	(5)
The Prison Population Is Not Representative of the General Population	225	(1)
The Proportions of Female, Older, Hispanic, and Unmarried Inmates Have Been Increasing	225	(1)
Inmates Are Disproportionately Young, Male, and from Minority Groups	226	(1)
Most Persons Arrested for Criminal Behavior Are Male	227	(1)
Younger People More Often Commit Crimes	227	(1)
Minority Groups Are Disproportionately Incarcerated	228	(1)
Inmates Often Have Histories of Family Disorganization and Are at the Lower End of the Economic Scale	229	(1)
Many Inmates Have Committed Violent Crimes	229	(1)
Extensive Prior Arrest Histories Increase the Likelihood of Future Recidivism	230	(1)
Special Category Offenders	230	(14)
Inmates with Psychological or Behavioral Disorders Can Be Management Problems	230	(1)
Public Policy Regarding the Mentally Disordered Has Changed over the Years	230	(1)
Some Inmates Suffer from a Variety of Serious Mental Disorders	231	(1)
Prisons Have Some Mentally Handicapped Inmates Who Require Special Programming	231	(1)
There Are Different Levels of Retardation	231	(1)
Mentally Retarded Individuals Tend to Be Overrepresented in the Prison Population	232	(1)
Prisons Have Typically Failed to Consider the Needs of Retarded Inmates	232	(1)
Sex Offenders Are Problems for Community and Corrections	232	(1)
Some States Have Passed Laws Targeting Sex Offenders after Their Release from Prison	232	(1)
Close Up: A Retarded Inmate's Dilemma	233	(1)
There Are a Substantial Number of Sex Offenders in U.S. Prisons	234	(1)
Various Approaches Are Available for Treating Sex Offenders	234	(1)
Inmates Treat Child Molesters Differently Than Rapists	235	(1)
Mature Inmates Differ from Their Younger Counterparts	235	(1)
Close Up: The Vermont Treatment Program for Sexual Aggressors	236	(1)
Older Inmates Often Have More Physical Problems Than Outsiders of Comparable Age	237	(1)
Offense Patterns of Mature Offenders Differ from Those of Younger Inmates	237	(1)
There Are Three Types of Older Offenders	237	(1)
A Major Question Is Whether to Segregate Mature Inmates or Place Them in the General Prison Population	238	(1)
The Youthful Offender Has Been Treated Differently Than Other Inmates	239	(2)
Physically or Medically Handicapped Offenders Require More Resources Than Other Inmates	241	(1)
The Number of Long-Term Offenders in Prisons Is Increasing	241	(1)
LTOs Are Different from Other Inmates	242	(1)
LTOs Face Different Problems Than Other Inmates	242	(1)
Most LTOs Go Through Phases of Adjustment to Prison Life	243	(1)
Special Services Are Required for LTOs	243	(1)
LTOs Can Benefit from Program Planning That Considers Their Extended Prison Terms	244	(1)
Understanding the Diversity of the Male Inmate Population	244	(1)
Chapter Recap	245	(1)
Review Questions	245	(1)
Test Your Knowledge	246	(1)
The Female Offender	247	(22)
Female Offenders and the Criminal Justice System	248	(1)
Current Female Criminality Is Low But Increasing Faster Than for Men	248	(1)
Different Factors Affect the Sentencing of Women and Men	248	(1)
Women and the Correctional System	249	(17)
Historical Overview Shows a Familiar Pattern	249	(1)
Women Took the Lead in Reforming Programs for Incarcerated Females	250	(1)
Reforms Created Separate Prisons for Women	251	(1)
The Reformatory Movement Brought Changes for Female Corrections	251	(1)
Parole Was First Applied to Women	251	(1)
The Cottage Plan Was Used in the Construction of Women's Prisons	251	(1)
Legal Challenges by Inmates Have Improved Female Prisons	252	(1)
Female Inmates in Jails and Prisons Differ from Their Male Counterparts	252	(1)
Most Women Are Now Being Incarcerated for Drug and Violent Crimes	253	(1)
Female Inmates Have More Serious Drug Use Histories Than Males	254	(1)
Contemporary Prisons for Women Provide Better Conditions Than in the Past	254	(1)
Tighter Security Is Becoming a Concern for Modern Women's Prisons	254	(1)
Females Adapt to Imprisonment in Different Ways	255	(1)
Involvement in Pseudofamilies Represents One Form of Adaptation	255	(1)
Three Adaptive Roles Are Imported from Outside the Prison	255	(1)
Contemporary Pseudofamilies Are Becoming More Gang-Like	256	(1)
The Nature and Amount of Homosexual Activity is Uncertain	256	(1)
Services and Programs at Women's Prisons Often Lack Parity with Male Facilities	256	(1)
Most Women's Prisons Offer Education Programs	256	(1)
Vocational Training Programs Still Offer Mainly ``Women's Work''	257	(1)
Inmate Work Programs Serve Various Purposes	258	(1)
Recreational Activities Are Often Passive and Nonphysical	258	(1)
Medical Services Are Generally Inadequate	258	(1)
Pregnancy Represents a Dilemma for Both Incarcerated Women and the Corrections System	259	(1)
Most Inmate Mothers Are Separated from Their Newborn Babies	259	(1)
Close Up: Pregnant in Prison: An Inmate's Experience	260	(1)
Visitation Enables Women to Maintain Ties with Children and Other Family Members	260	(1)
Parent/Child Programs Are Designed to Foster Mother/Child Relations	261	(1)
Transition from Prison to Society Can Be Difficult for Inmate Mothers	262	(1)
Co-Correctional Institutions House Men and Women in the Same Prison	262	(1)
Programs Are Shared, But Sleeping Arrangements Are Separate	262	(1)
These Programs Have Advantages and Disadvantages for Both Sexes	262	(1)
Community Correctional Programs for Both Sexes Are Similar	263	(1)
Community Programs Serve Pre-Prison and Post-Prison Functions and Can Be Residential or Nonresidential	263	(1)
Post-Prison Release Programs Focus on Relapse Prevention	264	(1)
Future Correctional Programming for Women Should Consider Their Special Needs	264	(1)
Reduced Incarceration of Women Is Recommended	265	(1)
Chapter Recap	266	(1)
Review Questions	266	(1)
Test Your Knowledge	266	(3)
Part Five: Institutional Administration and Management	269	(114)
Correctional Administration	270	(26)
U.S. Correctional Systems Operate on Three Levels	271	(1)
The Federal Correctional System Houses Offenders Convicted of Federal Crimes	271	(1)
Each State Has Its Own Correctional System	271	(1)
Local Correctional Systems House Pretrial Detainees and Misdemeanants	272	(1)
Most Correctional Organizations Are in the Public Domain	272	(4)
The Government Is Responsible for the Punishment of Convicted Offenders	274	(1)
Ambiguous Correctional Goals Have Caused Problems	274	(1)
The Private Sector Has Again Become Involved in Corrections	274	(2)
Administrative and Managerial Personnel	276	(3)
System-Wide Administrators Create Policy and Programs	277	(1)
Institutional Administrators Implement Policies and Programs	277	(1)
Middle-Level Managers Oversee Specific Programs	278	(1)
First-Line Supervisors Oversee Line Personnel	279	(1)
Various Approaches to Correctional Administration	279	(8)
Close Up: Joe Ragen-The Ultimate Authoritarian	280	(1)
Structural Concepts Help to Identify the Administrative Hierarchy	280	(1)
Close Up: George Beto and the Texas System	281	(1)
There Are Three Major Organizational Models	281	(1)
The Authoritarian Model Is Characterized by a Strong Autocratic Leader	282	(1)
Under the Bureaucratic Model Control Is Maintained by the Book	282	(1)
The Participative Model Allows Staff to Contribute to Problem Solving	283	(1)
Close Up: Washington State Penitentiary-An Example of Inmate Participation That Did Not Work	284	(1)
Proactive Corrections Management Is Analogous to Preventive Maintenance	285	(1)
Characteristics of Successful Correctional Administrators	286	(1)
Disorder in the Prison: A Sign of Poor Management	287	(7)
The New Mexico Riot Was One of the Most Savage in U.S. History	288	(2)
The Riot at Camp Hill Was Precipitated by Policy Changes	290	(1)
The Lucasville Riot May Have Been Curtailed If Staff Had Responded Sooner	291	(1)
The Control of Group Violence Requires a Plan	291	(2)
A Well-Run Prison: Oak Park Heights	293	(1)
The Mecklenburg Design Was Similar to That at Oak Park Heights But Its Management Style Was Not	294	(1)
Sound Management Principles Improve Correctional Systems	294	(1)
Chapter Recap	294	(1)
Review Questions	295	(1)
Test Your Knowledge	295	(1)
Custodial Personnel	296	(20)
Status of Correctional Officers	297	(1)
Most Correctional Officers Are White Males in Their Mid-Thirties	297	(1)
Recruiting Qualified Correctional Officers Has Become Easier	297	(1)
Training of Correctional Officers	298	(3)
Formal Training Involves Classroom Instruction	299	(2)
Informal Training Provides a Different Orientation	301	(1)
The Various Roles of Correctional Officers	301	(8)
Relationships between Correctional Officers and Inmates Have Changed	301	(1)
Correctional Officers, Lacking a Role in Policy Making, Often Feel Unsupported by Administration	302	(1)
Correctional Officer Subcultures Tend to Vary from System to System	303	(1)
Close Up: The Prison: A Paramilitary Versus Human Services Organization	304	(1)
Correctional Officers Perform Many Different Jobs	304	(2)
Custodial Procedures and Disciplinary Actions Are the Mechanisms by Which COs Maintain Order	306	(1)
Custodial Procedures Control Inmate Movement and Contraband	307	(1)
Disciplinary Procedures Are Used to Deal with Rule Violators	308	(1)
The Acid Test of Staff Training Involves the Ability of COs to Control Inmates	308	(1)
Female and Minority Correctional Officers	309	(3)
Increasing Numbers of Female Correctional Officers Are Working in Male Prisons	309	(3)
The Work Environment of Correctional Officers	312	(2)
COs Have Joined Unions to Obtain Representation in Matters Affecting Them	312	(1)
Concerns of Unionized COs Focus on a Wide Range of Issues	313	(1)
Prison Work Is Stressful	313	(1)
Chapter Recap	314	(1)
Review Questions	315	(1)
Test Your Knowledge	315	(1)
History of Prisoner Rights, Court Access, and Remedies	316	(19)
The Evolution of Prisoner Rights	317	(5)
Under the Hands-Off Doctrine, the Courts Refused to Consider Inmate Claims of Unconstitutional Prison Conditions	317	(1)
The Hands-Off Doctrine Was Discarded in the 1960s	318	(1)
The Warren Court Extended Constitutional Rights to Minority Groups	318	(1)
Provisions of the Bill of Rights Were Selectively Incorporated into the Due Process Clause Making Them Binding on the States	319	(1)
By the Mid-1970s the Courts Were Reluctant to Further Expand Inmate Rights	319	(1)
The Pivotal Decisions Signaled the Court's New Direction	320	(1)
The Court Took a More Restrained Hands-On Approach	321	(1)
Constitutional Challenges May Now Be Taken to State Courts	322	(1)
Court Access Provides a Basis for Inmates to Secure Their Rights	322	(3)
Various Issues Surround the Adequacy Of and Access to Law Libraries	322	(2)
It Is Questionable Whether Inmates Can Prepare Their Own Cases	324	(1)
Prison Officials May Not Unreasonably Restrict Access to Attorneys	324	(1)
The Courts Upheld Access to Inmate Assistance in Filing Cases	324	(1)
Jailhouse Lawyers Assist Inmates in Filing Their Cases	324	(1)
There are Two Types of JHLs	325	(1)
JHLs Serve a Number of Functions	325	(1)
Inmates Become JHLs for a Variety of Reasons	325	(1)
Postconviction Actions	325	(5)
Tort Actions Are One Form of Legal Relief	326	(1)
Inmates Can Bring Cases to the Federal Courts Under Section 1983 of the Civil Rights Act	326	(1)
An Injunction Requires Acts to Be Performed or Terminated	326	(2)
Inmates Can Be Awarded Damages in Some Legal Actions	328	(1)
Fees Are Awarded to Plaintiff Attorneys But Rarely Are They Assessed against Inmates	328	(1)
Consent Decrees Are Agreements That Settle Disputes	328	(1)
Habeas Corpus Actions Are Used to Challenge Convictions and Confinement Conditions	328	(1)
There Are Many Misconceptions Regarding Prisoner Litigation	329	(1)
The Relative Number of Habeas Corpus Complaints Has Been Declining	329	(1)
A Rise in Civil Rights Actions Indicates Greater Concern with Prison Conditions	329	(1)
Enforcement of Judicial Orders	330	(3)
The Enforcement of Judicial Orders Is Not Easy	330	(1)
Court Orders against Resistant Defendants Are Enforced by Two Methods	331	(1)
Resistant Defendants Can Be Held in Contempt	331	(1)
Judges Can Supervise Compliance or Appoint Agents To Do So	331	(1)
Special Masters Assist the Courts in Certain Legal Actions	331	(1)
Masters Have Played Three Roles in Correctional Cases	331	(1)
Courts Appoint Masters for Several Reasons	332	(1)
Several Types of Actions Are Possible against Resisters	332	(1)
Chapter Recap	333	(1)
Review Questions	334	(1)
Test Your Knowledge	334	(1)
Prisoner Substantive and Procedural Rights	335	(22)
Restrictions on First Amendment Rights	336	(1)
Inmates Have Certain Rights Relating to the Use of Mail	336	(1)
Some Restrictions on Publications and Literature Have Been Justified	337	(1)
Eighth Amendment Prohibition against Cruel and Unusual Punishment	337	(13)
Isolated Confinement Has Been Used for a Long Time	338	(1)
Solitary Confinement Is Not Usually Considered Unconstitutional	338	(1)
Isolation of Inmates May Have Adverse Psychological Effects	339	(1)
The Courts Approve Use of Force in a Correctional Setting under Certain Circumstances	339	(1)
The Use of Force by COs Ranges from Justified to Unjustified	339	(1)
The Staff Subculture Can Influence the Use of Force	340	(1)
Circumstances and Amount Employed Govern the Acceptable Use of Force	341	(1)
Close Up: When Is Force Repugnant: The Hudson v. McMillian Case	342	(1)
The Various Levels of Control are Determined by the Type of Resistance	342	(4)
Inmates Have a Right to Protection against Assault	346	(1)
Deliberate Indifference Is Required to Hold Prison Officials Responsible for Failure to Protect Inmates from Harm	346	(2)
Officials Who Encourage or Passively Observe Inmate Assaults Can Be Held Responsible for the Resulting Harm to an Inmate	348	(1)
Certain Conditions Caused by Overcrowding May Be Unconstitutional	348	(1)
Consider This...: Do Some People Who Go to Jail Deserve What They Get?	349	(1)
Due Process Procedures in Institutions	350	(2)
Rules and Regulations Must Be Clearly Stated and Be Related to Legitimate Penal Objectives	350	(1)
Inmates Retain the Right to Procedural Due Process	351	(1)
Due Process Procedures Are Required to Deprive an Inmate of Certain Types of Interests	351	(1)
Due Process in Prison Does Not Require Any Specific Procedures	352	(1)
Fourth Amendment Rights to Privacy	352	(3)
Cell Searches Are Conducted to Search for Contraband	353	(1)
Pat-Down or Frisk Searches of Inmates and Urine Tests to Determine Illegal Drug Use Are Permitted in Prisons	353	(1)
The Courts Recognize Strip Searches Are Needed to Control Contraband	353	(1)
Body Cavity Probes Must Be Conducted by Trained Medical Staff	354	(1)
The Courts Have Restricted the Items That Can Be Taken from Inmates	354	(1)
Chapter Recap	355	(1)
Review Questions	356	(1)
Test Your Knowledge	356	(1)
Classification and Custody	357	(26)
Reception and Orientation	358	(1)
Classification Procedures	359	(3)
Basic Forms of Classifications Have a Long History	359	(1)
Modern Classification Systems Analyze and Organize the Diverse Inmate Population	360	(1)
Objective Systems Began to Be Developed in the 1970s	360	(1)
Classification Protects Inmates from Each Other	360	(1)
Classification Protects the Public	361	(1)
Classification Increases the Efficient Use of Prison Resources	361	(1)
Classification Is Used for Inmate Control	362	(1)
Classification Is a Source of Planning Information	362	(1)
Elements of the Classification Process	362	(10)
Distinctions between Security and Custody Are Not Always Clear	362	(1)
Security Focuses on Protecting Society from Inmates	363	(1)
Maximum Security Restricts Inmate Activity and Closely Controls Them	363	(2)
Close Security Facilitates House Inmates with Different Custody Designations	365	(1)
Medium Security Prisons Provide a Wide Variety of Programs	365	(1)
Level II Minimum Security Prisons Are Open Institutions	365	(1)
Level I Community Security Facilities Are Open Programs	365	(1)
Custody Deals with Levels of Supervision	366	(1)
Maximum Custody Inmates Are Closely Supervised and Have Limited Freedom and Movement	366	(1)
Close Custody Inmates Can Participate in Programs under Supervision	366	(1)
Medium Custody Inmates Can Participate in Institutional Programs and Do Not Require Direct Supervision	366	(1)
Minimum Custody Inmates Can Move about the Institution Unsupervised	366	(1)
Community Custody Inmates Are Allowed to Be Unsupervised in Community Facilities	366	(1)
Close Up: Marion, A Federal Super-Maximum Security Facility	367	(1)
There Are Several Issues Related to Minimum Security Facilities	368	(1)
Can Minimum Security Facilities Accommodate Long-Term Inmates?	368	(1)
Minimum Security Facilities Must Deal with Community Opposition	369	(1)
Can Minimum Security Facilities Provide Adequate Programs?	369	(1)
Segregation of Some Inmates Helps Protect Them and Others	369	(1)
Needs Assessment Determines an Inmate's Program and Service Requirements	370	(1)
Determining Inmate Needs Leads to Proper Program Placement	370	(1)
Close Up: Conditions of PC Confinement	371	(1)
Finding the Right Programs to Meet Inmate Needs Is Important	372	(1)
Classification Models	372	(7)
The National Institute of Corrections Model Is a Management Tool	372	(1)
Inmates Are Rated on Predictive Variables	372	(3)
Inmates' Medical Needs and Intellectual Levels Can Affect Facility Placement	375	(1)
Inmate Progress Is Monitored through the Reclassification Process	375	(1)
The Federal Prison System Classification Model Contains Objective Criteria with Staff Overrides	375	(1)
Initial Classification Is Based on Security Considerations	376	(3)
The Federal System Has Received Positive Evaluations	379	(1)
Objective Classification Systems Had a Positive Impact	379	(1)
Future of Classification	379	(2)
Conclusion	380	(1)
Chapter Recap	381	(1)
Review Questions	382	(1)
Test Your Knowledge	382	(1)
Part Six: Institutional Programs and Services	383	(88)
Basic Prison Programs: Educational and Work	384	(25)
Provision of Basic Inmate Needs	385	(1)
There Are Important Reasons for Providing Basic Services	385	(1)
Improving Inmates' Skills Can Reduce Crime	385	(1)
Courts Have Required Basic Services	385	(1)
Programs Increase the Efficiency and Security of the Prison	386	(1)
Educational Programs	386	(11)
Prison Education Programs Have a Long History	386	(1)
After the Civil War Education Came to Be Viewed as an Important Element in the Reformation of Offenders	386	(1)
In the 1960s Correctional Education Began to Receive Greater Emphasis	387	(1)
In the 1980s Several Factors Furthered the Development of Correctional Education	387	(1)
There Are Several Types of Correctional Education Programs	387	(1)
Close Up: Literacy in Prison	388	(1)
Many Jurisdictions Require Inmates below a Certain Literacy Level to Enroll in Education Programs	389	(1)
Both Adult Basic Education and Literacy Program Focus on Developing Elementary Academic Skills	389	(1)
Close Up: Inmates Teaching Inmates	390	(1)
GED Programs Provide Inmates with an Opportunity to Obtain a High School Diploma	390	(1)
Life Skill Programs Focus on Providing Inmates with the Skills to ``Make It'' in Society	391	(1)
Vocational Education Programs Are Designed to Provide Inmates with Job Skills	392	(2)
Close Up: Project Rio	394	(1)
Various Postsecondary Programs Are Open to Inmates	394	(2)
Mandatory Participation and Provision of Incentives Are Two Issues in Correctional Education	396	(1)
Voluntary or Coerced Entry into Basic Education Programs Is a Debated Issue	396	(1)
Should Inmates Receive Incentives for Participation in Education Programs?	396	(1)
Prison Work Programs	397	(10)
The Use of Inmate Labor Has a Long History	397	(1)
Inmate Workers Help to Maintain the Institution	397	(1)
Many Maintenance/Service Tasks Are Available	397	(1)
Employment of Inmates in Agricultural, Forestry, and Road Work Activities Is Also Common	398	(1)
Over Time Attitudes toward Prison Industries Have Changed	398	(1)
Historically There Were Two Main Types of Prison Industry Systems	398	(2)
Restrictive Legislation Suppressed Prison Industries	400	(1)
Reintegration, Overcrowding, and Emphasis on the Private Sector Have Revitalized Prison Industries	400	(1)
Contemporary Prison Industries Have Three Goals	401	(1)
The Offender Benefits by Developing Working Skills and Saving Money	401	(1)
The Institution Can Benefit from Prison Industries	401	(1)
Society Can Benefit from Prison Industries	401	(1)
Attaining Offender, Institutional, and Societal Goals for Work Programs Can Create Problems	401	(1)
The Prison Environment Imposes Constraints on Work Programs	402	(1)
Inmate Workers Can Pose Some Problems	402	(1)
Security Needs Can Disrupt Production	402	(1)
The Inmate Work Experience Must Include Reasonable Pay and Incentives	402	(1)
The Quality of Prison Goods and Services Has Been a Problem	403	(1)
Attempts Are Being Made to Revitalize Prison Industries	403	(1)
Private Sector Involvement in Prison Industry Includes Several Models	403	(1)
The Future of Prison Work and Industry Programs Involves the Private Sector	404	(2)
Close Up: PRIDE: An Example of the Corporate Model	406	(1)
Chapter Recap	407	(1)
Review Questions	408	(1)
Test Your Knowledge	408	(1)
Basic Prison Services: Physical and Mental Health and Treatment	409	(18)
Provision of Health Services	410	(2)
Prison Health Care Did Not Improve Until the 1970s	410	(1)
Inmates Have a Constitutional Right to Adequate Medical and Mental Health Care	410	(2)
Close Up: Florida's Correctional Mental Health Facilities Use Different Approaches	412	(1)
Correctional Mental Health Treatment Programs	412	(1)
A Variety of Treatment Modalities Have Been Used in Prisons	412	(1)
The Main Goal of Behavior Modification Is Behavior Change	412	(1)
Cognitive Approaches Are Often Learning Based	413	(1)
Issues Surrounding the Provision of Inmate Health Care	413	(5)
Inmates Have More Health Problems Than the General Population	413	(1)
Close Up: The Lifestyle Approach to Correctional Treatment	414	(1)
Prison Medical Facilities Vary According to Institution Size	415	(1)
There Are Many Facets to the Treatment of Inmate Medical Problems	415	(2)
Close Up: Billing for Medical Care	417	(1)
Adequate Medical Assessment Is the Key to a Good Health Care System	417	(1)
Several Factors Have Made It More Attractive for Physicians to Work in Prisons	417	(1)
Private Companies Are Now Providing More Prison Health Care	417	(1)
National Accreditation Can Improve Medical Services	418	(1)
Many Inmates Are Drug Offenders	418	(1)
Drug Treatment Programs	418	(1)
Offenders Enter Treatment Programs in Different Ways	419	(1)
Drug Treatment Aims to Reduce Drug Use and Criminal Behavior	419	(1)
The Therapeutic Community Model Is Effective in Treating Serious Drug Problems	419	(1)
Infectious Diseases Are Increasing Among Inmates	419	(6)
Close Up: The Stay'n Out and 977 Serendipity Programs	420	(1)
Tuberculosis Is Reemerging in Jails and Prisons	421	(1)
Inmates with Active Tuberculosis Must Be Isolated	421	(1)
AIDS Is an Immune System Disease without a Known Cure	421	(1)
Inmates Have AIDS at Ten Times the Rate of the General Population	422	(1)
AIDS Has Generated Problems and Controversies for Correctional Administrators	422	(3)
Chapter Recap	425	(1)
Review Questions	426	(1)
Test Your Knowledge	426	(1)
Basic Prison Services: Food and Religion	427	(20)
Prison Food Service	427	(5)
Food Has a Critical Role in Prisons	428	(1)
Menu Planning Can Be Complex	429	(1)
Some Inmates Require Special Diets	429	(1)
The Feeding of Inmates Requires Close Scrutiny	430	(1)
Inmates Are Fed in Dining Rooms or in Their Units	430	(1)
Serving Lines Must Be Controlled	431	(1)
Food Service Areas Require Security	431	(1)
More Efficient Food Preparation Methods Can Deal with Overcrowding and Prison Emergencies	431	(1)
Religious Programs	432	(1)
Religious Groups Have Historically Been Concerned with Offenders	432	(13)
The Introduction of the Treatment Approach to Corrections Provided a New Incentive for Young, Better Qualified Men to Become Chaplains	433	(1)
The Courts Have Dealt with Several Religious Issues	433	(1)
The Religious Freedom Restoration Act Will Have a Major Impact on the Regulation of Religious Practices in Prison	434	(2)
The Contemporary Chaplain Has a Variety of Functions	436	(1)
The Chaplain's Main ``Mission'' Is to Improve the Lot of Inmates	437	(1)
Chaplains Coordinate, Supervise, and Run All Religious Activities	437	(2)
Black Muslim Clergy Have Increasingly Become Involved in Prison Religious Activities	439	(1)
Chaplains Help Regulate and Distribute Religious Items	440	(1)
Chaplains Must Be Responsive to a Number of Inmate Needs	440	(1)
Counseling Inmates Can Put Chaplains into Difficult Situations	440	(1)
Close Up: An Imam Provides Religious Leadership for Muslim Inmates	441	(1)
Chaplains Assist Inmates in Dealing with Many Situations	442	(1)
Prison Religious Programs Are Vulnerable to Manipulation by Inmates	442	(1)
Integration into the Prison Staff Can Be Difficult for Chaplains	443	(1)
Chaplains Also Minister to Staff and Their Families	443	(1)
Effective Chaplains Must Have Certain Characteristics	444	(1)
Chapter Recap	445	(1)
Review Questions	446	(1)
Test Your Knowledge	446	(1)
Family Ties, Visiting, and Recreation	447	(24)
Visitation and Inmate Family Ties	448	(1)
Family Contacts Positively Impact Inmate Prison and Postrelease Behavior	448	(1)
Family Ties Provide Inmates with a Support System and the Motivation to Change	448	(1)
Incarceration Creates Crises for Prisoners' Wives	449	(1)
Imprisonment for Inmates' Wives Is Like the Death of a Loved One	449	(1)
Visitation Programs	449	(12)
Visiting Rules Are Based on Security Concerns	450	(1)
Most Often Inmates Are Visited by Family Members	450	(1)
Wives Commonly Bring the Children When They Visit	450	(1)
Prison Visiting Schedules and Visiting Area Capacities Vary Widely	451	(1)
Conditions External to the Prison Affect Visitors	451	(1)
Getting to the Prison Can Be Difficult	451	(1)
Transportation Assistance to Some Prisons Is Provided	451	(1)
Visiting Centers and Hospitality Houses Assist Visitation	452	(1)
Close Up: An Inmate's View of the Importance of Hospitality Centers	453	(1)
Visiting Conditions Relate to Institutional Security and Inmate Custody Level	453	(1)
Rules Specify Mode of Dress and the Items Visitors Are Permitted to Bring	453	(1)
Visitors Are Frequently Searched	453	(1)
There Is a Spectrum of Possible Visiting Conditions	454	(1)
The Visiting Room Atmosphere Can Affect the Outcome of the Visit	454	(1)
Sexual Intimacy, Although Prohibited, Can Occur During Visitation	455	(1)
Some Institutions Allow Private Family/Conjugal Visiting	456	(1)
Family Visits Can Benefit Inmates	456	(1)
There Are Objections to Conjugal Visiting	457	(1)
Family/Conjugal Visiting Programs Have Some Common Characteristics	457	(1)
Some Institutions Provide Family Counseling and Parenting Programs to Strengthen Family Ties and Promote Visiting	458	(1)
Telephones Are a Vital Link to Family and Friends	458	(1)
Close Up: M-2 Sponsored Program Provides Visitors for Isolated Inmates	459	(1)
All Systems Place Restrictions on Phone Calls	460	(1)
Furloughs Let Some Inmates Temporarily Leave Prison	461	(1)
Recreational Programs	461	(7)
Prison Recreation Has a Long History	461	(1)
Prisons Began to Develop Diversified Recreation Programs in the 1970s	462	(1)
Recreation Benefits Both Inmates and Institutions	462	(2)
Good Recreational Programming Has Many Facets	464	(1)
Recreational Programs Require Adequate Staff and Diverse Activities	465	(1)
Community Groups Participate In and Support Recreation Programs	466	(1)
Inmates Need to Be Informed about Recreational Activies	466	(1)
Overcrowding and Budget Constraints May Adversely Affect Recreation Programs	467	(1)
Chapter Recap	468	(1)
Review Questions	468	(1)
Test Your Knowledge	468	(3)
Part Seven: Community Correctional Programs and Facilities	471	(65)
Jails and Detention: The American Jail	472	(21)
The Diverse Population of Jails	473	(2)
The Long History of Jails	475	(1)
Jails in England Originated in the Medieval Period	475	(1)
Jails in America Date Back to the Colonial Period	476	(1)
Early Jails Resembled Homes	476	(1)
About Half the Jails in the U.S. Were Built after World War II	476	(1)
Basic Jail Designs	476	(3)
A Linear Design Results in Intermittent Surveillance	476	(1)
One Podular Design Uses Remote Supervision	477	(1)
The Newest Podular Design Uses Direct Supervision	478	(1)
Security and Control	479	(2)
Sound Perimeter Security Is a Primary Line of Control	479	(1)
Control Is Easier When the Population Is Divided into Manageable Groups	480	(1)
Well-Designed Jails Facilitate the Surveillance of Inmates	480	(1)
Jail Admission Process	481	(2)
The Design of the Intake Area Affects the Control of Arrestees	481	(1)
Many Offenders Spend Only a Few Hours in Jail	481	(1)
Medical and Mental Health Screening of Arrestees Is Routine in Many Jails	481	(1)
Accurate Identification of the Inmate Involves Several Steps	482	(1)
Good Classification and Orientation Facilitate Control	482	(1)
Special Problems of Certain Types of Inmates	483	(3)
Substance Abusers May Require Special Care	483	(1)
Changes in Mental Health Policies Have Increased the Number of Mentally Ill in Jails	484	(1)
Some Inmates Are Suicidal	484	(1)
Juveniles Are at Risk in Adult Jails	485	(1)
Females Have Been the ``Forgotten Inmates'' of the Jail System	486	(1)
Jail Staff and Programs	486	(3)
Correctional Officers Constitute the Bulk of the Staff	486	(1)
In Many Jails Road Deputies Must First Serve as COs	486	(1)
Professionalization of COs Requires Substantial Training	487	(1)
The Primary Role of Jail Staff Is Supervision	487	(1)
Control Is Best Achieved by Having Inmate Behavior Determine Confinement Conditions	487	(1)
Jail Management Involves a Variety of Issues	487	(1)
Jail Regionalization and Separation from Law Enforcement Are New Trends	487	(1)
Good Management Requires Frequent Contact between Command Staff and Inmates	488	(1)
Constitutional Jails Provide a Safe Environment for Staff and Inmates	488	(1)
Jails Provide Some Programs for Inmates	489	(1)
Jails Usually Have Little Recreational Space	489	(1)
Some Jails Offer Education and Substance Abuse Programs	489	(1)
Some Jails Have Begun Industry Programs	489	(1)
It Is Difficult to Institute Jail Programs	490	(1)
The Future of the American Jail	490	(1)
Chapter Recap	491	(1)
Review Questions	492	(1)
Test Your Knowledge	492	(1)
Probation and Parole	493	(21)
Probation as an Alternative to Imprisonment	494	(7)
Probation and Its Antecedents Mitigated Harsh Sentences	494	(1)
John Augustus Was the Father of Modern Probation	495	(1)
Probation Grew Rapidly in the Early Twentieth Century	495	(1)
Probation in the Era of Just Deserts	495	(1)
Probation Today Is at Record Levels	496	(1)
A Sentence to Probation Depends on Several Factors	496	(2)
Conditions Are the Limits Placed on Probationers	498	(1)
The Organization and Administration of Probation Services	499	(1)
Caseload Size Determines the Level of Supervision	499	(1)
Caseload Assignments Are Made in Several Ways	499	(1)
The Presentence Investigation Is an Important Probation Officer Activity	500	(1)
The PSI Helps in Sentencing and Treatment	500	(1)
The PSI Requires a Lot of Information	500	(1)
Issues Related to PSIs	500	(1)
Parole Is Served in the Community	501	(2)
Developments in the United States Resulted from Changes in Philosophy	501	(1)
The Return to Retribution Reduced Discretionary Parole	502	(1)
Today the Number of Parolees Is at an All-Time High	502	(1)
There Are Several Types of Release from Prison	502	(1)
The Organization and Administration of Parole Services	502	(1)
Parole Is an Executive Function	502	(1)
The Parole Board Makes the Parole Decision	502	(1)
Objective Parole Criteria and Guidelines Help in Making the Decision	503	(1)
Supervision and Service Delivery to Probationers and Parolees	503	(8)
PO Strategies Balance Surveillance and Service	503	(1)
The Probation/Parole Officer as a Law Enforcement Agent	503	(1)
Close Up: Should POs Be Armed?	504	(1)
The Probation/Parole Officer as a Caseworker	504	(1)
The Probation/Parole Officer as a Resource Broker/Advocate	505	(1)
Probation or Parole Can Be Revoked for Violations	505	(1)
Several Court Decisions Have Affected the Revocation Process	505	(1)
Revocation Research Shows a Strong Substance Abuse Influence	506	(1)
The Effectiveness of Probation/Parole Supervision	507	(1)
Effectiveness Studies Show Relatively High Levels of Recidivism	507	(3)
Some Research Compares Probation and Parole Outcomes	510	(1)
Parole Studies Also Show High Recidivism	510	(1)
Selection of Probation and Parole Officers	511	(1)
Stress and Burnout are Problems	511	(1)
Conclusion	512	(1)
Chapter Recap	512	(1)
Review Questions	513	(1)
Test Your Knowledge	513	(1)
Intermediate Sanctions: Getting Tough in the Community	514	(22)
Historical Development of Intermediate Sanctions	515	(1)
The Correctional Philosophy Underlying Intermediate Sanctions Has Changed	515	(1)
What Are Intermediate Sanctions Suppose to Do?	516	(1)
Various Intermediate Sanction Programs Exist	516	(17)
Halfway Houses Are Treatment Oriented	516	(1)
This Type of Facility Has Existed for a Long Time	517	(1)
Guidelines for Opening and Operating a Halfway House	518	(1)
The Vast Majority of Halfway Houses Today Are Privately Operated	518	(1)
Close Up: Delancy Street Is a Very Unique Halfway House	519	(1)
Work/Study Release Programs Provide Prerelease Employment or Education	519	(1)
Early Work Release Programs Began in Wisconsin	520	(1)
Work Release Has Various Goals and Objectives	520	(1)
How Work Release Programs Operate	520	(1)
Intensive Probation Supervision Programs Are Designed for Prison-Bound Offenders	521	(1)
These Programs Had Antecedents in California	522	(1)
Programs Developed in the 1980s Were Designed to Increase Control	523	(1)
New IPS Programs Are More Successful in Achieving Some Goals Than Others	523	(1)
House Arrest/Home Confinement Programs Make Offenders' Homes Their Jails	524	(1)
Many Are Stand-Alone Programs Because They Are Not Associated with Probation Programs	524	(1)
Electronic Monitoring Increases Surveillance	524	(1)
Historical Development of Electronic Monitoring Programs	524	(1)
Close Up: Does IPS Work?	525	(1)
There Are Several Types of Electronic Monitors	526	(1)
Close Up: Florida's Community Control Program	527	(1)
Shock Incarceration and Boot Camp Involve Short-Term Incarceration	528	(1)
Shock Incarceration Was the Predecessor of Boot Camps	528	(1)
Boot Camps Are Molded after Military Boot Camp Training	528	(3)
Close Up: New York's Shock Incarceration Program: A Model for the Future	531	(1)
Close Up: The Metropolitan Day Reporting Center, Boston	532	(1)
Day Reporting Centers Are an Innovation	533	(1)
The Programs Have a British Origin	533	(1)
The Goals and Purposes of DRCs Vary	533	(1)
Future of Intermediate Sanctions	533	(1)
Chapter Recap	534	(1)
Review Questions	534	(1)
Test Your Knowledge	534	(2)
Epilogue: What Can We Expect as the Twentieth Century Comes to a Close?	536	(11)
Trends Affecting the Future of Corrections	537	(4)
The Public Mood Toward Criminals Is Becoming More Punitive	537	(1)
The Public Is Advocating a Reduction in Prevention Programs	538	(1)
The Demographic Structure of the Population Is Changing	538	(1)
Criminogenic Social Conditions Will Continue to Affect Involvement in Crime	538	(1)
Will the Public Continue to Support the Most Expensive Solutions?	539	(1)
Will the Courts Continue to Insist on Constitutional Prisons?	540	(1)
How Can Corrections Respond?	541	(1)
Dilemmas Facing Corrections	541	(2)
What Are Some Approaches Corrections Might Take?	543	(4)
Strengthening Community Corrections for the Twenty-First Century	543	(1)
Creating Tough Prisons	544	(1)
Close Up: The Return of Chain Gangs	544	(2)
Private Sector Involvement in the Correctional Process May Grow	546	(1)
Developing Prisons with a Humane Environment	546	(1)
Epilogue Recap	547