T. A. Heppenheimer's acclaimed chronicle of rockets, politics, and the pioneers who dared to reach beyond humanity's limits. "The most comprehensive, up-to-date, and best written history of space flight there is."-The Times (London) "A lively account of the development of space activities in the U.S. and the Soviet Union . . . as good a one-volume overview of space as exists."-Scientific American. "Countdown is by far the best history of space flight I have ever read. It is detailed, lucidly written for the layman, and full of fascinating stories.-Adrian Berry, Daily Telegraph. "Science writer Heppenheimer's readable account provides a timely historical overview of the early visionaries, the engineers, and the geopolitical forces that placed men on the moon and created today's aerospace industry. . . . A thoughtful analysis that is highly recommended.-Library Journal. "By far the most significant and technically insightful account of the ventures into the space environment I have seen. . . . [Heppenheimer] concentrates unerringly on key elements, both technical and managerial, in this account of man's initial space ventures."-Lee Atwood, Former president and chairman, North American Aviation Corporation. "Like a skilled artisan, Heppenheimer weaves social, political, scientific, technological, military, and economic threads of the history of space flight into a tapestry that reveals fascinating patterns and themes."-Publishers Weekly

T. A. HEPPENHEIMER, Ph.D., has written extensively on aerospace, business, and the history of technology. A frequent contributor to Discover, Forbes, Nature, Omni, and American Heritage magazines, he is the author of six previous books, including Turbulent Skies: The History of Commercial Aviation (Wiley). Dr. Heppenheimer divides his time between Fountain Valley, California, and West Palm Beach, Florida. "A lively account of the development of space activities in the U.S. and the Soviet Union . . . as good a one-volume overview of space as exists."—Scientific American"If you've already got loads of books on the history of space flight, great news: you can give them all to Oxfam . . . All you need now is this, the most comprehensive, up-to-date and best written history of space flight there is."—The Times (London)"By far the most significant and technically insightful account of the ventures into the space environment I have seen."—Lee Atwood, former president and chairman, North American Aviation"By far the best history of space flight I have ever read. It is detailed, lucidly written for the layman, and full of fascinating stories."—Adrian Berry, Daily Telegraph 02 Wiley Imprint Code List JW Wiley John Wiley & Sons 19990319 1997 01 000 01 236.5 mm 02 157.5 mm 03 29.1 mm 08 22.08 oz John Wiley & Sons OI 28 01 T 17.95 0471295841 03 0471295841 BB Global Brain The Evolution of Mass Mind from the Big Bang to the 21st Century 1 A01 Howard Bloom Bloom, Howard Howard Bloom eng 384 SCI000000 2.3 01 "This lusty tome is a stunning commitment to scientific evidence." --Lynn Margulis Advance Praise for GLOBAL BRAIN "Howard Bloom believes that the Leviathan, or society as an organism, is not a fanciful metaphor but an actual product of evolution. The Darwinian struggle for existence has taken place among societies, as well as among individuals within societies. We do strive as individuals, but we are also part of something larger than ourselves, with a complex physiology and mental life that we carry out but only dimly understand. With this bold vision of evolution and human behavior, Bloom has raced ahead to explore possibilities that the timid scientific herd may well be forced to follow." --DAVID SLOAN WILSON Coauthor, Unto Others: The Evolution and Psychology of Unselfish Behavior "A soaring song of songs about the amorous origins of the world and its almost medieval urge to copulate." --KEVIN KELLY, Editor-at-Large, Wired Author, Out of Control: The New Biology of Machines, Social Systems and the Economic World "A fascinating new evolutionary theory that could deeply change our view of life, and a new worldview that could radically change our interpretation of social structures." --FLORIAN ROETZER, Editor, Telepolis, Germany "You have not lived until you have interacted with Howard Bloom. He offers sweeping looks at similar functional patterns of organization at cellular, neural, social, and cosmic levels, combining them with powerful insights on social history and movements in human thought and rituals." --JAMES BRODY, Ph.D., Founder, clinical sociobiology "I have met God and he lives in Brooklyn. I could try to convince you that Howard Bloom is next on a very short list that includes Darwin, Freud, Einstein, and Buckminster Fuller, but Howard can probably do a much better job of convincing you himself." --RICHARD METZGER, Editor, Disinfo.com Host of Channel Four(U.K.) TVs Disinfo Nation "Howard Bloom's Global Brain is filled with scientific firsts. It is the first book to make a strong, solidly backed, and theoretically-original case that we do not live the lonely lives of selfish beings driven by selfish genes, but are parts of a larger whole. It is the first to propose that sociality was implicit in the start of the universe--the Big Bang. Global Brain is the first book to present strong evidence that evolutionary, biological, perceptual, and emotional mechanisms have made us parts of a social learning machine--a mass mind which includes all species of life, not just humankind. It is the first to take this idea out of the realm of mysticism and into the sphere of hard-nosed, data-derived reality. And it is one of the few books which carry off such grand visions with energy, excitement, and keen insight." Elizabeth Loftus, immediate past president, American Psychological Society, author, Witness for the Defense and The Myth of Repressed Memory Global Brain: The Evolution of Mass Mind from the Big Bang to the 21st Century is the follow-up to Howard Blooms first book, The Lucifer Principle: a scientific expedition into the forces of history, which The Washington Post called "a mesmerizing mirror of the human condition," and which critic Mark Graham of Denvers Rocky Mountain Post praised as "a philosophical look at the history of our species, which alternated between fascinating and frightening. Reading it was like reading Dean Koontz or Stephen King: I couldn't put it down." The Lucifer Principle was a shock to those who believe that the greed of genes turns us into selfish loners, but Global Brain: The Evolution of Mass Mind from the Big Bang to the 21st Century will come as an even bigger surprise. It presents evidence that this cosmos has been "social" since its first microseconds of existence, and that the first communal intelligence appeared among colonies of cyanobacteria 3.5 billion years ago. These bacteria pioneered the first worldwide research and development system eons before the emergence of women and men. Global Brain follows the evolution of individual and mass minds from the multi-trillion member collaborations among our bacterial ancestors to the ten-thousand-strong mass marches and claw-to-claw showdowns of Mesozoic spiny lobsters. It demonstrates how the first birds of the Jurassic age gathered in flocks and how their descendants were so tightly data-linked that cultural fads could spread hundreds of miles through the avian grapevine in a matter of mere days. Underpinning Global Brain's rewrite of the evolutionary saga is a new approach to social theory, one derived not from abstract principles but from observation of the real thing--living communities of all kinds--including the most fascinating of the lot: societies of human minds. Global Brain probes the rise of Neolithic cities thousands of years before Ur and Babylon, and explores how these little-known urban centers changed the very nature of human identity. It shows how transnational subcultures arose in Greece a hundred years before the glory days of Athens, and how these havens for unconventional men and women transformed the mechanism of collective creativity. Then Global Brain reveals how the sometimes brutal political stances promoted by Pythagoras, Socrates, and Plato still struggle for dominance at the turn of the 21st century. Global Brain presents evidence that the shared intelligence of humankind is part of a larger planetary mind, one that combines the learning of microbes, waterfowl, predatory cats, idealists, militants, religionists, and scientists. The book predicts that the great world war of the 21st century will take place between the collective intelligence of humanity and that of a world wide web 96 trillion generations old and billions of years wiseùthe global internet between microbial societies. Finally, Global Brain anticipates some of the creative paths this planet's team of battlers and borrowers may take during the next hundred and fifty years. Kevin Kelly, editor-at-large of Wired magazine and author of Out of Control, says Global Brain is "a soaring song of songs about the amorous origins of the world, and its almost medieval urge to copulate." Evolutionary biologist David Sloan Wilson, author of Unto Others: The evolution and psychology of unselfish behavior, adds that, "With this bold vision of evolution and human behavior, Bloom has raced ahead to explore possibilities that the timid scientific herd may well end up following." And Joseph Chilton Pearce, author of Evolution's End: Claiming the Potential of Our Intelligence, says "I have finished Howard Bloom's two books, The Lucifer Principle and Global Brain, in that order, and am seriously awed, near overwhelmed by the magnitude of what he has done. I never expected to see, in any form, from any sector, such an accomplishment. I doubt there is a stronger intellect than Bloom's on the planet." "A soaring song of songs about the amorous origins of the world, and its almost medieval urge to copulate." Kevin Kelly, Editor-at-Large of Wired, author New Rules for the New Economy: 10 Radical Strategies for a Connected World and Out of Control: The New Biology of Machines, Social Systems and the Economic World. "Howard Bloom's Global Brain is filled with scientific firsts. It is the first book to make a strong, solidly backed, and theoretically-original case that we do not live the lonely lives of selfish beings driven by selfish genes, but are parts of a larger whole. It is the first to propose that sociality was implicit in the start of the universe--the Big Bang. Global Brain is the first book to present strong evidence that evolutionary, biological, perceptual, and emotional mechanisms have made us parts of a social learning machine--a mass mind which includes all species of life, not just humankind. It is the first to take this idea out of the realm of mysticism and into the sphere of hard-nosed, data-derived reality. And it is one of the few books which carry off such grand visions with energy, excitement, and keen insight." Elizabeth Loftus, immediate past president, American Psychological Society, author, Witness for the Defense and The Myth of Repressed Memory "This lusty tome generated by Blooms voracious reading habit and extraordinary talent for explanation proclaims that groups of individualsùfrom people to vervet monkeys to bacteriaùorganize themselves, create novelty, alter their surroundings, and triumph to leave more offspring than loner individuals. A stunning commitment to scientific evidence, this sequel to The Lucifer Principle ought to purge the academic world of 'selfish genes' and the neodarwinist dogma of 'individual selection'." Lynn Margulis, Distinguished University Professor, University of Massachusetts, recipient of a 1999 National Medal of Science, author of Symbiotic Planet: A New Look at Evolution. "Howard Bloom has a fascinating vision of the interplay of life, and a compelling style which I found captivating." Nils Daulaire, President and CEO, Global Health Council. "I have finished Howard Bloom's two books, The Lucifer Principle and Global Brain, in that order, and am seriously awed, near overwhelmed by the magnitude of what he has done. I never expected to see, in any form, from any sector, such an accomplishment. I doubt there is a stronger intellect than Bloom's on the planet." Joseph Chilton Pearce, author of Evolution's End: Claiming the Potential of Our Intelligence. "I have met God and he lives in Brooklyn. I could try to convince you that Howard Bloom is next on a very short list that includes Darwin, Freud, Einstein and Buckminster Fuller, but Howard can probably do a much better job of convincing you himself." Richard Metzger, creative director Disinfo.com, host of Channel Four TV Britains Disinfo Nation. "In a superbly written and totally original argument, Howard Bloom continues his one-man tradition of tackling the taboo subjects. With a marvelously erudite survey of life and society from bacteria to the Internet, he demonstrates that group selection is for real and the group mind was there from the start. What we are entering now is but the latest phase in the evolution of the global brain. This is a must read for professionals and laymen alike. Robin Fox, University Professor of Social Theory, Rutgers University, co-author with Lionel Tiger of The Imperial Animal. "A modern-day prophet, Bloom compels us to admit that evolution is a team sport. This is a picture of the universe in which human emotions find their basis in the survival of matter, and the atoms themselves are held together with love. I am awestruck." Douglas Rushkoffùauthor of Media Virus, Coercion, and Ecstasy Club "Global Brain is wonderful! I'm amazed at the book's knowledge and the scope of its reach. The 'mass mind' idea is wondrous, smart and immensely creative." Georgie Anne Geyer, syndicated columnist, Universal Press Syndicate, and author of Guerrilla Prince: The Untold Story of Fidel Castro. "Howard Bloom's work is simply brilliant and there is nothing else like it, anywhere--we've looked, as have our colleagues. Global Brain is powerful, provocative, and mind-blowing." Don Edward Beck, Ph.D., author of Spiral Dynamics, co-director, National Values Center. "The Thales of the Internet, Howard Bloom thinks what he wants, writes what he thinks, and performs his synthesis with a good heart, uncompromising truth, creative brain, and mountains of evidence. From the bacterial web of Eshel Ben-Jacob to the scientific sidelining of Professor Ling, we see the daunting power of groups that interact and sacrifice their members in order to thrive and evolve. Global Brain is a historical tour-de-force, one based on evolution and the complexity of adaptive systems." Dorion Sagan, author of Biospheres and co-author of Into the Cool: The New Thermodynamics of Life. "Stunning! Howard Bloom has done it again. He is certainly on to something." Peter Corning, Director, Institute for the Study of Complex Systems, President, International Society For the Systems Sciences, au

Acknowledgments

ix

Introduction

1

(3)

Wonder-Weapons and Prison Camps: Rocketry under Stalin and Hitler

4

(26)

Ingenious Yankees: The Rise of America's Rocket Industry

30

(29)

Racing to Armageddon: The Superpowers Begin Their Missile Programs

59

(28)

The Mid-1950s: Spacecraft, Planned and Imagined

87

(28)

``The Russians Are Ahead of Us!'': The Space Race Begins

115

(32)

A Promise of Moonglow: Space in the Wake of Sputnik

147

(27)

Afternoon in May: Kennedy Commits to the Moon

174

(29)

High-Water Mark: The Manned Moon Race

203

(37)

Lunar Aftermath: Space Stations and the Shuttle

240

(32)

Electrons in the Void: The Unmanned Space Programs

272

(33)

Space in the Eighties: The Efforts Falter

305

(33)

Renewal and Outlook: Commerce and Cooperation in Space

338

(21)

Notes

359

(4)

Bibliography

363

(14)

Index

377

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