Critical Thinking in Psychology Separating Sense from Nonsense

by Ruscio, John

• ISBN13: 9780534634599
• ISBN10: 0534634591
• Edition: 2nd
• Format: Paperback
• Copyright: 7/26/2005
• Publisher: Cengage Learning

Summary

Do you have the tools to distinguish between the true science of human thought and behavior from pop psychology? John Ruscio's book provides a tangible and compelling framework for making that distinction. Because we are inundated with "scientific" claims, the author does not merely differentiate science and pseudoscience, but goes further to teach the fundamentals of scientific reasoning upon which you can base your evaluation of information.

Table of Contents

Preface	xv
Challenging Widely Accepted Claims	xv
Empowering Students to Evaluate Claims for Themselves	xvii
1. Distinguishing Science from Pseudoscience	xvii
2. Teaching Critical Thinking Skills	xvii
3. Using Memorable Examples	xviii
4. Exploring Material Relevant to Many Courses	xviii
Broad Coverage Complemented by Electronic Resources	xviii
New to the Second Edition	xix
Acknowledgments	xx
About the Author	xx
Evaluating Sources Whether in Print or on the Internet	xxiii
Sharpening and Leveling	xxiv
Criteria for Evaluating the Quality of Sources	xxv
Popularity	xxv
Reviews	xxvi
The Internet as a Research Tool	xxvii
The Content of Web Sites	xxvii
Internet Searches	xxviii
Thinking for Yourself	xxix
Part One DECEPTION
Chapter 1 Introduction: Pseudoscience and the Need for Critical Thinking	1	(13)
Separating Sense from Nonsense	3	(3)
Studying Human Reasoning	4	(1)
Systematic Errors Reveal Our Mental Shortcuts	4	(1)
The Pros and Cons of Relying on Shortcuts	5	(1)
Thinking Critically	5	(1)
Applying the Tools of Critical Thinking	6	(1)
Ten Characteristics of Pseudoscience	6	(4)
1. Outward Appearance of Science	6	(1)
2. Absence of Skeptical Peer Review	7	(1)
3. Reliance on Personal Experience	7	(1)
4. Evasion of Risky Tests	8	(1)
5. Retreats to the Supernatural	8	(1)
6. The Mantra of Holism	8	(1)
7. Tolerance of Inconsistencies	9	(1)
8. Appeals to Authority	9	(1)
9. Promising the Impossible	9	(1)
10. Stagnation	10	(1)
The Plan of This Book	10	(4)
Part One: Deception	11	(1)
Part Two: Self-Deception	11	(1)
Part Three: Psychological Tricks	12	(1)
Part Four: Decision Making and Ethics	13	(1)
Chapter 2 Science: Evaluating Claims to Knowledge	14	(15)
Scientific Reasoning	15	(14)
Falsifiability	15	(1)
Logic	16	(1)
Comprehensiveness	17	(1)
Honesty	17	(1)
Replicability	18	(1)
Sufficiency	19	(1)
Antiscientific Beliefs	20	(1)
Postmodernism	20	(3)
The "What Works Is Different for Everybody" Fallacy	23	(1)
The "Probability Is Irrelevant to the Unique Individual" Fallacy	23	(1)
Voodoo Science and Legal Standards	24	(5)
Chapter 3 Language: Misleading and Evasive Tactics	29	(13)
Weasel Words and Framing Effects	29	(4)
Cooperation and Conversational Maxims	33	(7)
Quality: The Myth of "Health Food"	33	(1)
Quantity: Suggestive and Leading Questions	34	(2)
Relation: The Irrelevant Language of "Alternative" Health Care	36	(2)
Manner: The Emptiness of "Holism"	38	(2)
Closing Thoughts: False Dichotomies and the Slippery Slope	40	(2)
Chapter 4 Magic: The Allure of Exotic Rituals, Fantasy, and Mysticism	42	(12)
Believing in Magic	43	(1)
Wishful Thinking	43	(2)
Belief in a Vitalistic Energy	45	(1)
Putting the "Human Energy Field" to the Test	46	(1)
The Creation of Superstitions and Exotic Rituals	47	(2)
Superstitions as Representative Thinking	49	(1)
Maintenance of Superstitions	50	(1)
Abuses of Science in Favor of Mysticism	51	(1)
The Magic of Modern Technology	52	(2)
Chapter 5 Authority: Appeals to Blind Obedience	54	(13)
Milgram's Research	54	(3)
Understanding Milgram's Results	57	(1)
When Should We Obey?	58	(1)
Untrustworthy Authorities	59	(3)
The "Ancient Wisdom" Fallacy	59	(1)
The Popularity Fallacy	59	(1)
The Fallacy of Self-Proclaimed Expertise	60	(2)
Political Lobbying as a Warning Flag	62	(5)
The National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine	62	(2)
The Dietary Supplement Health and Education Act	64	(3)
Part Two SELF-DECEPTION
Chapter 6 Experience: The Limitations of Testimonials as Evidence	67	(12)
Self-Deception	68	(1)
Competing Explanations	69	(7)
The Placebo Effect	69	(2)
Spontaneous Remission	71	(1)
The Disease Ran Its Natural Course	71	(1)
The Cyclical Nature of Many Diseases	72	(1)
Misdiagnosis	72	(1)
The "Worried Well"	72	(1)
Symptomatic Relief	73	(1)
Hedged Bets	73	(1)
Derivative Benefits	73	(1)
Psychological Distortion of Reality	74	(1)
The Bottom Line	75	(1)
Probabilistic General Principles	76	(3)
Chapter 7 Plausibility: All Beliefs Are Not Created Equal	79	(15)
Magnet Therapy: Claims Versus Reality	80	(3)
Magnets and Water	82	(1)
Magnets and the Human Body	82	(1)
The Strength of "Therapeutic" Magnets	83	(1)
Homeopathy: Empty Promises	83	(4)
The Law of Similars	84	(1)
The Law of Infinitesimals	84	(2)
Evasive Maneuver 1: Lowering the Dilution Factor	86	(1)
Evasive Maneuver 2: "Water Memory"	86	(1)
Electromagnetic Fields and Cancer	87	(2)
Alien Abductions: A Modern-Day Misunderstanding	89	(5)
The Contamination Effect	89	(1)
Dull Fantasies and Contradictions	90	(1)
Sleep Paralysis	91	(3)
Chapter 8 Association: Establishing and Interpreting Correlations	94	(12)
Presuming an Association Through Mere Examples	96	(1)
Presuming an Association Through a Lone Rate	97	(1)
Interpreting a Correlation	98	(4)
Causal Relationships Between Correlated Events	98	(1)
Three Conditions for Causality	99	(1)
Examining Patterns Across Multiple Correlations	100	(2)
Beware the Media	102	(2)
Do Horoscopes Predict Anything?	104	(2)
Part Three PSYCHOLOGICAL TRICKS
Chapter 9 Risk: Biased Perceptions and the Media Paradox	106	(9)
Vividness	106	(2)
Availability	108	(1)
The Media Paradox	109	(2)
Falling Airplane Parts Revisited	111	(1)
A Radical Conjecture	112	(11)
Mindful Attention to Media Reports	123
Chapter 10 Belief: Confirmation Bias, Post-Hockery, and Overconfidence	115	(14)
Discovery Versus Verification: The Importance of Prediction	116	(4)
The Bible Code	116	(2)
The "Hot Hand" in Basketball	118	(2)
Confirmation Bias	120	(5)
The Rorschach Inkblot Test	121	(1)
Graphology: Handwriting Analysis	122	(1)
Polygraphy: The "Lie Detector" Test	123	(2)
Absent or Misleading Feedback	125	(1)
Hindsight Bias and Overconfidence	126	(1)
Foiling Post-Hockery	127	(1)
Answers to the Confidence Quiz	128	(1)
Chapter 11 Schemes: The Seductiveness of Grand Conspiracy Theories	129	(10)
The Three Roles in a Conspiracy Theory	129	(2)
Conspirators	129	(1)
Saviors	130	(1)
Dupes	130	(1)
A Grand Conspiracy Theory: "Area 51"	131	(2)
The Role of the Media	131	(1)
Thinking Critically About Area 51	132	(1)
Problems Facing Any Grand Conspiracy Theory	133	(1)
The "Hidden Cure" Conspiracy	134	(3)
Intense Competition Is Ignored	134	(1)
The Alleged Profit Motive Makes No Sense	135	(1)
Science Is Never Going to Cure All Disease	136	(1)
Monumental Callousness Is Presumed	136	(1)
Why Does the Theory of Hidden Cures Persist?	136	(1)
Challenging Conspiracies	137	(2)
Chapter 12 Illusions: The Perception of Control	139	(11)
The Illusion of Control	140	(1)
The Certainty Effect	141	(1)
The Dangers of Illusions of Control	142	(2)
Belief in the "Just World" and the Blaming of Victims	142	(1)
Self-Blame	143	(1)
Learned Helplessness	144	(1)
The Downside to Mental Imagery	144	(1)
The "Choose to Be Healthy" Fallacy	145	(2)
Prayer and Religion-Motivated Medical Neglect	147	(3)
Part Four DECISION MAKING AND ETHICS
Chapter 13 Assessment: Classical Decision Theory	150	(20)
Polygraph Tests	152	(1)
Classical Decision Theory and Frequency Trees	153	(2)
Base Rate: How Rare an Outcome Is One Trying to Detect?	155	(2)
Validity: What is the Strength of the Evidence?	157	(3)
Threshold: Where Does One Draw the Line to Make a Decision?	160	(1)
Laboratory Validity Versus Field Utility	161	(1)
Putting It All Together	162	(3)
Nutritional Scams	165	(3)
Validity	165	(1)
Base Rate	166	(1)
Threshold	167	(1)
Protecting Against Professional Misconduct	168	(2)
Chapter 14 Decisions: Clinical Versus Statistical Approaches	170	(14)
Two Approaches to Decision Making	171	(1)
Why Is the Statistical Approach Superior?	172	(5)
Validity	173	(1)
Units of Measurement	173	(1)
Reliability	174	(1)
Redundancy	175	(1)
Regression Effects	176	(1)
Adherence to the Clinical Approach	177	(4)
Knowledge Deficit	177	(1)
Fear of Computers	177	(1)
Fear of Unemployment	178	(1)
Belief in the Efficacy of One's Judgment	178	(1)
Theoretical Identifications	179	(1)
The "Dehumanizing" Feel of Statistical Equations	180	(1)
Mistaken Conception of Ethics	180	(1)
Embracing Statistical Decisions	181	(3)
Pro/Con Lists	181	(1)
Professional Practice	181	(2)
Statistics Do Apply to the Individual	183	(1)
Chapter 15 Ethics: The Use and Promotion of Unverified Treatments	184	(13)
Overlooking the Obvious in Favor of the Unlikely	184	(1)
Repressed Memories and Multiple Personalities	185	(6)
Cost-Benefit Ratio	191	(2)
Skewed Projections of Benefit and Harm	191	(1)
The Overlooked Opportunity Costs	192	(1)
Truly Informed Consent and Patient Autonomy	193	(2)
The "Health Freedom" Fallacy	195	(2)
Chapter 16 Tools: Suggestions for Critical Thinking	197	(11)
The Dangers of a Pseudoscientific Approach to Health Care	199	(1)
Thinking Critically	200	(7)
Reconceptualize Issues in Multiple Ways	201	(1)
Beware of Wishful Thinking	201	(1)
Consider the Legitimacy of Authorities	201	(1)
Seek Risky Tests, Not Weak Confirmation	201	(1)
Don't Be Misled by Testimonials	202	(1)
Keep in Touch with Reality	202	(1)
Remember That Correlation Does Not Imply Causation	202	(1)
Beware the Media Paradox	203	(1)
Formulate Multiple Working Hypotheses	203	(1)
Ask What Can Be Predicted	203	(1)
Challenge Conspiracy Theories	203	(1)
Watch Out for Illusions of Control	204	(1)
Be Careful Not to Blame Victims	204	(1)
Consider Both Positive and Negative Consequences of a Claim	204	(1)
Pay Attention to Base Rates	204	(1)
Accept Some Mistakes in Order to Minimize Error	205	(1)
Take Advantage of the Power of Statistical Decision Making	205	(1)
Don't Misinterpret Regression Toward the Mean	205	(1)
Consider Both Costs and Benefits	206	(1)
Practice Critical Thinking	206	(1)
A Closing Thought on Wishful Thinking	207	(1)
References	208	(15)
Index	223