Cultures and Organizations : Software for the Mind

by Hofstede, Geert

• ISBN13: 9780071439596
• ISBN10: 0071439595
• Edition: 2nd
• Format: Paperback
• Copyright: 2004-09-12
• Publisher: McGraw-Hill

Summary

The landmark study of cultural differences across 70 nations,Cultures and Organizationshelps readers look at how theythinkand how they fail to thinkas members of groups.Based on decades of painstaking field research, this new editionfeatures the latest scientific results published in Geert Hofstede'sscholarly workCulture's Consequences, Second Edition. Originalin thought and profoundly important, Cultures and Organizationsoffers vital knowledge and insight on issues that willshape the future of cultures and nations in a globalized world.

Author Biography

Geert Hofstede (Netherlands) is professor emeritus of organizational anthropology and international management at the University of Limburg, in Maastricht, where he is the founder and director of the Institute for Research on Intercultural Cooperation.

Gert-Jan Hofstede (Netherlands) is a Ph.D. and a professor at Wageningen University.

Table of Contents

Preface	ix
Introduction: The Rules of the Social Game	1	(38)
Different Minds but Common Problems	2	(1)
Culture as Mental Programming	2	(3)
Cultural Relativism	5	(1)
Symbols, Heroes, Rituals, and Values	6	(3)
Culture Reproduces Itself	9	(1)
Layers of Culture	10	(1)
Culture Change: Changing Practices, Stable Values	11	(2)
Prehistory of Culture	13	(3)
Sources of Cultural Diversity and Change	16	(2)
National Culture Differences	18	(1)
National Cultures or National Institutions?	19	(1)
What About National Management Cultures?	20	(1)
Measuring Values	21	(1)
Dimensions of National Cultures	22	(3)
Replications of the IBM Research	25	(3)
Using Correlations	28	(1)
Adding a Fifth Dimension	29	(2)
Validation of the Country Culture Scores Against Other Measures	31	(1)
Other Classifications of National Cultures	31	(3)
Cultural Differences According to Region, Ethnicity, Religion, Gender, Generation, and Class	34	(1)
Organizational Cultures	35	(1)
Summing Up: Culture as a Phoenix	36	(3)
PART I Dimensions of National Cultures
More Equal Than Others	39	(34)
Inequality in Society	40	(1)
Measuring the Degree of Inequality in Society: The Power Distance Index	41	(4)
Power Distance Defined	45	(2)
Power Distance in Replication Studies	47	(1)
Power Distance Differences Within Countries: Social Class, Education Level, and Occupation	48	(3)
Measures Associated with Power Distance: The Structure in This and Following Chapters	51	(1)
Power Distance Difference Between Countries: Roots in the Family	51	(2)
Power Distance at School	53	(2)
Power Distance in the Workplace	55	(3)
Power Distance and the State	58	(4)
Power Distance and Corruption	62	(1)
Power Distance and Ideas	63	(3)
Origins of Power Distance Differences	66	(4)
The Future of Power Distance Differences	70	(3)
I, We, and They	73	(42)
The Individual and the Collective in Society	74	(1)
Measuring the Degree of Individualism in Society	75	(5)
Individualism and Collectivism in Other Cross-National Studies	80	(2)
Are Individualism and Collectivism One or Two Dimensions?	82	(1)
Collectivism Versus Power Distance	82	(3)
Individualism and Collectivism According to Occupation	85	(1)
Individualism and Collectivism in the Family	86	(6)
Language, Personality, and Behavior in Individualist and Collectivist Cultures	92	(4)
Individualism and Collectivism at School	96	(3)
Individualism and Collectivism in the Workplace	99	(4)
Individualism, Collectivism, and the State	103	(3)
Individualism, Collectivism, and Ideas	106	(4)
Origins of Individualism-Collectivism Differences	110	(4)
The Future of Individualism and Collectivism	114	(1)
He, She, and (S)he	115	(48)
Assertiveness Versus Modesty	116	(1)
Genders and Gender Roles	116	(2)
Masculinity-Femininity as a Dimension of Societal Culture	118	(4)
Masculinity and Femininity in Other Cross-National Studies	122	(1)
Masculinity Versus Individualism	123	(2)
Are Masculinity and Femininity One or Two Dimensions?	125	(1)
Country Masculinity Scores by Gender and Gender Scores by Age	125	(2)
Masculinity and Femininity According to Occupation	127	(1)
Masculinity and Femininity in the Family	128	(3)
Masculinity and Femininity in Gender Roles and Sex	131	(4)
Masculinity and Femininity in Education	135	(5)
Masculinity and Femininity in Shopping	140	(1)
Masculinity and Femininity in the Workplace	141	(5)
Masculinity, Femininity, and the State	146	(6)
Masculinity, Femininity, and Religion	152	(4)
Origins of Masculinity-Femininity Differences	156	(4)
The Future of Differences in Masculinity and Femininity	160	(3)
What Is Different Is Dangerous	163	(44)
The Avoidance of Uncertainty	164	(2)
Measuring the (In)tolerance of Ambiguity in Society: The Uncertainty Avoidance Index	166	(4)
Uncertainty Avoidance and Anxiety	170	(2)
Uncertainty Avoidance Is Not the Same as Risk Avoidance	172	(1)
Uncertainty Avoidance According to Occupation, Gender, and Age	173	(1)
Uncertainty Avoidance in the Family	174	(3)
Uncertainty Avoidance, Happiness, and Health	177	(1)
Uncertainty Avoidance at School	178	(2)
Uncertainty Avoidance in Shopping	180	(2)
Uncertainty Avoidance in the Workplace	182	(4)
Uncertainty Avoidance, Masculinity, and Motivation	186	(4)
Uncertainty Avoidance, the Citizen, and the State	190	(5)
Uncertainty Avoidance, Xenophobia, and Nationalism	195	(2)
Uncertainty Avoidance, Religion, and Ideas	197	(5)
Origins of Uncertainty Avoidance Differences	202	(2)
The Future of Uncertainty Avoidance Differences	204	(3)
Yesterday, Now, or Later?	207	(34)
National Values and the Teachings of Confucius	208	(2)
Long-and Short-Term-Oriented National Cultures	210	(3)
Long-and Short-Term Orientation and the Family	213	(2)
Long-and Short-Term Orientation and School	215	(2)
Long-and Short-Term Orientation, Work, and Business	217	(4)
Long-and Short-Term Orientation and Economic Growth	221	(3)
Economic Growth and Politics	224	(3)
Long-and Short-Term Orientation and Rates of Imprisonment	227	(1)
Long-and Short-Term Orientation, Religion, and Ways of Thinking	228	(5)
Fundamentalisms as Short-Term Orientation	233	(1)
Short-Term Orientation in Africa	234	(3)
The Future of Long- and Short-Term Orientation	237	(4)
PART II Cultures in Organizations
Pyramids, Machines, Markets, and Families: Organizing Across Nations	241	(38)
Implicit Models of Organizations	242	(6)
Management Professors Are Human	248	(4)
Culture and Organizational Structure: Elaborating on Mintzberg	252	(3)
Planning, Control, and Accounting	255	(5)
Corporate Governance and Business Goals	260	(4)
Motivation Theories and Practices	264	(4)
Leadership, Decision Making, and Empowerment	268	(4)
Performance Appraisal and Management by Objectives	272	(2)
Management Training and Organization Development	274	(1)
Conclusion: Nationality Defines Organizational Rationality	275	(4)
The Elephant and the Stork: Organizational Cultures	279	(40)
The Organizational Culture Craze	281	(3)
Differences Between Organizational and National Cultures: The IRIC Project	284	(3)
Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches in the IRIC Project	287	(2)
Results of the In-Depth Interviews: The SAS Case	289	(2)
Results of the Survey: Six Dimensions of Organizational Cultures	291	(5)
The Scope for Competitive Advantages in Cultural Matters	296	(2)
Organizational Culture and Other Organizational Characteristics	298	(4)
Organizational Subcultures	302	(2)
Individual Perceptions of Organizational Cultures: Flowers, Bouquets, and Gardens	304	(2)
Occupational Cultures	306	(1)
Conclusions from the IRIC Research Project: Dimensions Versus Gestalts	307	(2)
Managing (with) Organizational Culture	309	(10)
PART III Implications
Intercultural Encounters	319	(44)
Intended Versus Unintended Intercultural Conflict	320	(3)
Culture Shock and Acculturation	323	(3)
Ethnocentrism and Xenophilia	326	(1)
Group Encounters: Auto- and Heterostereotypes	326	(1)
Language and Humor	327	(3)
The Influence of Communication Technologies	330	(1)
Intercultural Encounters in Tourism	331	(1)
Intercultural Encounters in Schools	331	(3)
Minorities, Migrants, and Refugees	334	(4)
Intercultural Negotiations	338	(3)
Multinational Business Organizations	341	(3)
Coordinating Multinationals: Structure Should Follow Culture	344	(2)
Expanding Multinationals: International Mergers and Other Ventures	346	(3)
International Marketing, Advertising, and Consumer Behavior	349	(2)
International Politics and International Organizations	351	(4)
Economic Development, Nondevelopment, and Development Cooperation	355	(3)
Learning Intercultural Communication	358	(5)
Surviving in a Multicultural World	363	(14)
The Message of This Book	363	(2)
The Moral Issue	365	(1)
Cultural Convergence and Divergence	366	(1)
Educating for Intercultural Understanding: Suggestions for Parents	367	(1)
Coping with Cultural Differences: Suggestions for Managers	368	(1)
Spreading Multicultural Understanding: Suggestions for the Media	369	(1)
Reading Mental Programs: Suggestions for Researchers	370	(1)
Global Challenges Call for Intercultural Cooperation	371	(6)
Endnotes	377	(22)
Glossary	399	(6)
Bibliography	405	(18)
Name Index	423	(6)
Subject Index	429