Design and Control of Structure of Advanced Carbon Materials for Enhanced Performance

by Rand, Brian; Appleyard, Stephen P.; Yardim, M. Ferhat; Appleyard, S. P.

• ISBN13: 9781402000027
• ISBN10: 1402000022
• Format: Hardcover
• Copyright: 2001-09-01
• Publisher: Kluwer Academic Pub

Summary

The review of carbon materials here presented regards them as forming a continuous spectrum, varying in crystallinity and nano?, micro? and macro?texture. The structure?property relationships are discussed to examine how they can be controlled during different processing operations. Processing routes are described to see how they might be varied, modified or invented to meet he needs for new applications. The following key questions are debated: What is intrinsically possible with carbon materials? How do we convert what is intrinsically possible into an engineering product that enhances our quality of life? How do we design and produce materials to satisfy the visions of the engineer?

Table of Contents

Dedication	v
Contents	vii
List of Participants	xvii
Preface	xix
PART ONE - STRUCTURE AND PROPERTIES
Polymorphism in Carbons and Parent Materials
P. Delhaes
Introduction	3	(1)
The Crystalline Forms	4	(5)
Chemical Bonds and Electronic Structures	4	(2)
Thermodynamic Stability and Associated Phase Diagram	6	(2)
Theoretical Approaches and New Predicted Phases	8	(1)
Real and Virtual Forms Of Carbons	9	(10)
Structures with a Fixed Coordination Number	9	(1)
Carbynes	9	(1)
Graphites	9	(2)
Diamonds	11	(1)
Structures on Curved Surfaces	12	(1)
Historical Outline	12	(1)
Topological Classification	13	(2)
Physical Properties And Phase Stability	15	(1)
Exotic Structures with Variable Coordination Numbers	16	(1)
(2-3) Connected Carbon Nets	17	(1)
(4-3) Connected Carbon Nets	17	(2)
Non-Crystalline Carbons	19	(3)
Classification of Non-Crystalline Carbons	20	(1)
Morphologies of Non Crystalline-Carbons	21	(1)
Parent Materials and ``Alloys''	22	(3)
Topological Classification	22	(1)
Theoretical Predictions, Synthetic Ways and Physical Characterizations	23	(2)
Conclusion	25	(1)
References	26	(3)
Theory and Modelling of Carbon
M.I. Heggie
Introduction	29	(3)
Models of Carbon	32	(5)
Point Defects in Carbon Phases	32	(1)
Diamond	32	(1)
Graphite	32	(1)
The Self-Adatom	33	(1)
The Inter-Planar Interstitial	34	(2)
Fullerenes	36	(1)
Changes in sp2 Bonding Topology	36	(1)
Conclusions	37	(1)
Acknowledgements and References	37	(6)
Characterisation of Carbon Structure
X. Bourrat
Introduction	43	(1)
Paracrystalline Structure of Graphitic Carbons	44	(5)
TEM Lattice-Fringes And Layer Size Measurement	45	(1)
X-Ray Diffraction From Paracrystalline Structure	46	(1)
Measurements Of La And Lc	47	(1)
X-Ray Diffraction Measurement of d002 Spacing	48	(1)
Texture of Graphitic Carbons	49	(6)
Optical Texture (Example of Pyrocarbon)	49	(1)
The Textural Chart	50	(1)
Optical Anisotropy Measurement	51	(1)
Preferred Orientation as Measured By TEM	52	(1)
Samples Preparation	52	(1)
Orientation Angle, OA	52	(2)
SEM Fracture Surface Examination (Fibres Texture And Flaws)	54	(1)
The Graphitization Process	55	(7)
Graphitization is a 3D-Ordering of Layers	56	(1)
Measurement of P1 - The Degree of Graphitization	57	(5)
Conclusions	62	(1)
References	63	(2)
Thermal and Electrical Properties of Carbons Relationship to Structure
J.-P. Issi
Introduction	65	(1)
Electrical Transport	66	(8)
Some Characteristic Lengths	66	(2)
Diffusive and Ballistic Motion	68	(1)
Zero-Field Electrical Resistivity	68	(1)
Magnetoresistance	69	(1)
General Trends	70	(1)
Pristine Material	70	(4)
Effect of Intercalation	74	(8)
Thermal Conductivity	75	(1)
Conduction Mechanisms	75	(1)
Lattice Conduction	76	(5)
Relation Between K And p	81	(1)
Effect of Intercalation	82	(1)
Concluding Remarks	82	(1)
References	82	(3)
Surface Properties of Carbons for Advanced Carbon-Based Composites
P.Ehrburger
C. Vix-Guterl
Introduction	85	(1)
Principle of Composite Materials	86	(3)
Strength of Composite	86	(2)
Interface in Composite	88	(1)
Surface Properties of Carbon Fibres	89	(9)
Physical Properties	90	(1)
Surface Chemistry	91	(1)
Active Surface Area	91	(1)
Surface Functional Groups	92	(1)
Oxygen-Containing Surface Groups	92	(1)
Acidic Surface Groups	93	(1)
Basic Surface Groups	94	(1)
Modification of Surface Functionality	94	(3)
Chemical Groups and Active Surface Area	97	(1)
Surface Treatment of Carbon Fibres	98	(4)
Gas Phase Oxidation	99	(1)
Liquid Phase Oxidation	99	(1)
Nitric Acid Treatment	99	(1)
Formation of a Graphitic Oxide Layer	100	(1)
Anodic Etching	100	(2)
Carbon Fibre Reinforced Polymers	102	(8)
Polymer Matrix	102	(1)
Interfacial Bond	102	(2)
Wetting of Carbon Surface	104	(1)
Nature of the Interfacial Bond	105	(1)
Measurement of Interfacial Strength	105	(2)
Effect of Surface Properties of Carbon Fibres on the Characteristics of Composites	107	(1)
Intralaminar Shear Strength	107	(2)
Resistance to Fracture	109	(1)
Application of Carbon-Fibre Reinforced Polymers	110	(1)
Carbon-Carbon Composites	110	(9)
Principle of Brittle Matrix Composites	111	(1)
Interfacial Interaction in C/C Composites	112	(2)
Protection Against Oxidation	114	(1)
Mechanism of Inhibition	115	(1)
Glassy Coatings	116	(1)
Refractory Coatings	116	(2)
Limiting Chemical Reactions in Protection	118	(1)
Applications of C/C Composites	119	(1)
Carbon Composites With Other Matrices	119	(2)
References	121	(4)
PART TWO - PROCESSING
Pitch Precursor-Origin and Chemical Constitution
M.F. Yardim
E. Ekinci
K.D. Bartle
Introduction	125	(1)
General Features of Pitches	125	(1)
Types of Pitches	126	(3)
Primary Pitches	126	(1)
Coal Tar Pitch	127	(1)
Petroleum Pitch	127	(1)
Other Pitches of Primary Origin	128	(1)
Secondary Pitches	129	(1)
Pitch Modification	129	(3)
Additives	130	(1)
Blending	130	(1)
Air Blowing	131	(1)
Solvent Extraction	132	(1)
References	132	(3)
The Thermal Processing and Rheological Behaviour of Pitch
B.Rand
Introduction	135	(1)
Thermal Treatment and Composition	135	(6)
Rheological Behaviour of Pitch	141	(2)
Changes Due to Pyrolysis	143	(5)
The Diagram and Coking	148	(1)
Conclusions	149	(1)
References	149	(2)
Mesophase Precursors for Advanced Carbon Fibers Pitches, Stabilization and Carbonization
J.G. Lavin
Introduction	151	(1)
Pitches for High Performance Carbon Fibers	151	(6)
General	151	(3)
A Paradox	154	(1)
Pitches via Solvent Extraction	154	(1)
``Polymeric'' Pitch	155	(1)
Solvated Mesophase Pitch	156	(1)
Stabilization and Carbonization	157	(3)
References	160	(3)
Carbon Fiber Processing and Structure/Property Relations
D.D. Edie
Introduction	163	(1)
PAN-Based Carbon Fiber Processing	163	(2)
PAN Fiber Spinning	164	(1)
PAN Fiber Stabilization	164	(1)
PAN Fiber Carbonization	165	(1)
Structure of PAN-Based Carbon Fibers	165	(2)
Pitch-Based Carbon Fiber Processing	167	(7)
Pitch Fiber Spinning	168	(5)
Pitch Fiber Stabilization	173	(1)
Pitch Fiber Carbonization	174	(1)
Structure Of pitch-Based Carbon Fibers	174	(1)
Structure/Property Relations For Carbon Fibers	175	(3)
Conclusions	178	(1)
References	179	(4)
Carbon-Carbon Composites Relating Processing to Structure and Properties
S.P. Appleyard
B. Rand
Introduction	183	(1)
Applications	184	(1)
Friction	184	(1)
Materials Processing	184	(1)
Thermomechanical Applications	185	(1)
Overview Of Processing	185	(6)
Fibre Type & Composite Architecture	186	(1)
Matrix Type And Preform Densification Methods	187	(1)
Chemical Vapour Infiltration (CVI)	187	(1)
Liquid Impregnation	188	(2)
Upgrading	190	(1)
Current Issues	190	(1)
Design And Control Of Microstructure	191	(8)
Matrix Texture	192	(1)
Interfaces And Matrix Shrinkage Cracks	193	(3)
Densification	196	(2)
Effects Of Graphitisation	198	(1)
Thermal And Mechanical Properties	199	(3)
Thermal Properties	199	(1)
Mechanical Properties	200	(2)
Conclusion	202	(1)
References	203	(4)
Preparation and Structure of Carbon Fibres and Carbon Nanotubes from the Vapour Phase From Fibres To Nanotubes
M. Endo
V. A. Kim
K. Nishimura
T. Hayashi
T. Matushita
Introduction	207	(2)
Preparation of VGCFs and PCNTs	209	(2)
Structure of VGCFs and PCNTs	211	(3)
Multi- and Single-Walled Carbon Nanotubes	214	(1)
Conclusion	215	(1)
References	216	(1)
Manufacture of Bulk Carbon and Graphite Materials
R. Wolf
Introduction	217	(1)
General Procedure	217	(8)
Raw Materials	219	(1)
Binders	219	(1)
Mixing	220	(1)
Shaping	221	(1)
Baking	222	(1)
Graphitizing	223	(1)
Special Treatments	224	(1)
Outlook	225	(1)
References	225	(4)
PART THREE - PROPERTIES, APPLICATIONS AND NEW DIRECTIONS
Mechanical Properties of Carbon-Carbon Composites
E. Yasuda
T. Akatsu
Y. Ishiguro
L. Manocha
Y. Tanabe
Introduction	229	(1)
Mechanical Properties and Graphite Crystallites	229	(7)
Young's Modulus	229	(1)
Thermal Expansion Coefficient	230	(2)
Effect Of Crystallite Size On Thermal Conductivity	232	(1)
Tensile Strength	233	(1)
The Effect of Fibre Orientation and Surface Treatment on Mechanical Properties	233	(3)
Test Method for Shear Strength Measurement	236	(1)
Some Trials to Control the Microstructure	237	(2)
Addition of Fine Particles	237	(1)
Surface Treatment of the Fibre	238	(1)
Summary	239	(1)
References	239	(2)
High Strength, Sintered Carbons and Graphites
B.Rand
R.Wolf
Introduction	241	(1)
Fabrication Route	242	(3)
Powder Production	245	(1)
Compaction	245	(3)
Microstructures	248	(1)
Mechanical Properties	249	(2)
The Industrial Point of View	251	(2)
Raw Materials	252	(1)
The Market	252	(1)
Outlook	253	(1)
References	253	(2)
Anode Performance of the Li-Ion Secondary Battery
C. Kim
M. Endo
Introduction	255	(3)
Features of Li-Ion Secondary Battery	258	(2)
Carbon and Graphite Host Materials	260	(1)
Lithium/Graphite Intercalation Compounds	261	(3)
Voltage Profiles of Carbon Electrodes	264	(2)
Effect of Microstructure of Carbon Anode on the Capacity	266	(3)
Effect of Heteroatom-Doped Carbons	269	(4)
Conclusions	273	(1)
References	273	(4)
Carbon Materials for Energy Production and Storage
T.D. Burchell
Introduction	277	(1)
Nuclear Fusion Reactors	277	(4)
Space Nuclear Power	281	(2)
Transportation Technology	283	(9)
Summary and Conclusions	292	(1)
References	293	(1)
Acknowledgements	294	(1)
Porous Carbons for Gas Storage and Separation Characterisation And Performance
B. McEnaney
E. Alain
Y-F. Yin
T.J. Mays
Introduction	295	(1)
Characterisation - Classification Of Pore Sizes	295	(2)
Characterisation - Gas Adsorption	297	(3)
The BET Equation	299	(1)
Micropore Volumes from the Dubinin Equations	300	(1)
Characterisation - Estimation of Mesopore and Macropore Sizes	300	(2)
Characterisation - Estimation of Micropore Sizes	302	(2)
Performance - Introduction	304	(3)
Performance - Gas Separation Using Molecular Sieve Carbons	307	(2)
Performance - Microporous Carbon Membranes	309	(2)
Performance - Natural Gas Storage	311	(2)
Performance - Hydrogen Storage	313	(2)
Conclusions	315	(1)
References	315	(4)
Carbon-Ceramic Alloys
B. Rand
A.V.K. Westwood
S. Lu
Introduction	319	(1)
Alloys from Preceramic Polymers	319	(3)
Mesophase Alloys	322	(5)
Other Pitch-Based Alloys	327	(5)
Alloys Via Pyrolytic Incorporation of Boron	332	(2)
Carbon-Nitrogen Alloys	334	(1)
Nano-Porous Alloys	334	(1)
Summary and Conclusions	335	(1)
References	336	(3)
``Carbon Alloys''
E. Yasuda
Y. Tanabe
Introduction	339	(1)
The Sequence to ``Carbon Alloys'' and Its Classification	340	(1)
The Organisation and the Outline of the Project	340	(1)
Concepts and Topics in Each Group	341	(1)
Summary	342	(3)
Index	345