Detection Technologies for Chemical Warfare Agents and Toxic Vapors

by Sun; Yin

• ISBN13: 9781566706681
• ISBN10: 1566706688
• Edition: 1st
• Format: Hardcover
• Copyright: 2004-08-12
• Publisher: CRC Press

Summary

While it is not possible to predict - or necessarily prevent - terrorist incidents in which chemical warfare agents (CWAs) and toxic industrial chemicals (TICs) are deployed, correctly chosen, fast, and reliable detection equipment will allow prepared rescue workers to respond quickly and minimize potential casualties.Detection Technologies for Chemical Warfare Agents and Toxic Vapors discusses the principles, instrumentation, and context for applying technologies such as ion mobility spectrometry, infrared spectroscopy, colorimetric chemistry, and flame ionization to the detection of TICs and lethal CWAs. It conveys techniques - some of which have been patented by the authors - developed for generating vapors and closely imitating potential environmental effects in a laboratory setting, specifically for the testing and evaluation of hand-held, portable, and remote devices. This book also provides a comprehensive list of toxic industrial chemicals classified in terms of hazardousness and their physical, chemical, and toxicological properties. Following a brief historical overview, the text also includes a review of federal detection requirements and the government's rationale for preparedness and response.By providing insight on the behavior of toxic chemicals, the authors hope to minimize the fear and chaotic effect in a potential event involving chemical agents. Well written and accessible to technical and non-technical audiences, no other book focuses on analytical methods and explains current detection devices for chemical warfare agents.

Table of Contents

Introduction
Historical Overview	1	(1)
Chemical Warfare Agents	2	(2)
Nerve Agents	3	(1)
Blister Agents	3	(1)
Choking Agents	3	(1)
Blood Agents	4	(1)
Other Types of Agents	4	(1)
Toxic Industrial Compounds	4	(1)
CWA and TIC Detection	5	(5)
Historical Overview	5	(1)
Detection Requirements and Detector Development	5	(5)
Chemical Warfare Agents and Toxic Industrial Chemicals
Chemical, Physical, and Toxicological Properties	10	(3)
Molecular Formula	10	(1)
Molecular Structure Formula	10	(1)
Molecular Weight	11	(1)
Relative Vapor Density	11	(1)
Vapor Pressure	12	(1)
Volatility	12	(1)
Concentration	13	(1)
Toxic Properties	13	(3)
IDLH Level	13	(1)
LCt50	14	(1)
TWA	15	(1)
Other Terms	16	(1)
Common CWAs	16	(11)
Nerve Agents	16	(1)
Tabun	17	(2)
Sarin	19	(1)
Soman and Cyclosarin	19	(1)
VX and Vx	20	(1)
Blister Agents	20	(1)
Arsenicals	21	(1)
Levinstein Mustard and Distilled Mustard	21	(2)
Nitrogen Mustards	23	(1)
Mustard-T Mixture	23	(1)
Mustard-Lewisite Mixture	23	(1)
Phosgene Oxime	24	(1)
Blood Agents	24	(2)
Hydrogen Cyanide and Cyanogen Chloride	26	(1)
Arsenic Trihydride	26	(1)
Choking Agents	26	(1)
Other CWAs	26	(1)
Toxic Industrial Compounds	27	(7)
High-Hazard TICs	28	(1)
Medium-Hazard TICs	28	(1)
Low-Hazard TICs	28	(6)
Governmental Policies and Programs
CWA Detection Standards and Criteria for Deployment	34	(6)
Low-Level Exposure and Operational Risk Management	34	(1)
Significant Adverse Effect	35	(1)
Duration of Exposure	35	(1)
Low-Level Exposure Concentration	36	(1)
Uncertainties in Risk Assessment and Research Considerations	36	(1)
Summary of Existing/Recently Proposed Air Standards	36	(3)
Recommended Chemical Agent Concentration Criteria for Detectors	39	(1)
Joint Services Operational Requirements for Chemical Agent Detectors	40	(3)
JCAD Requirements and Rationales	42	(1)
Objective and Approaches at Dugway Proving Ground	43	(2)
Simultaneous Constant Agent Vapor Concentration Generation	44	(1)
Simultaneous Dynamic Agent Vapor Concentration Generation	44	(1)
Characterization of Chemical Interferents	44	(1)
Quantification of Dosages	45	(1)
Quantification of Hazard Levels	45	(1)
Data Monitoring and Recording	45	(1)
Quantification of TICs	45	(1)
JCAD Requirements for Detection and Identification Functions	45	(3)
Detection and Identification	46	(1)
Sampling Requirements and Additional Challenges	46	(2)
General Capabilities Necessary to Mitigate Vulnerability	48	(1)
Evaluation of Commercially Available Detection Devices for Certification as CWA Detectors	49	(8)
Background	49	(1)
Proposal	49	(1)
Purpose	50	(1)
General Test Protocol	50	(1)
Operating Characteristics	50	(1)
Device Sensitivity	50	(3)
Relative Humidity and Temperature Effects	53	(1)
Field Interference Test	54	(1)
Stability and Reliability	55	(1)
Remarks	55	(1)
CWA Sensitivity Testing	56	(1)
Detector Testing	57	(1)
Return of Materials Exposed to CWAs	57	(1)
Safety Risk Assessment for Release of Tested, Contractor-Owned Materials to Contractor	57	(9)
Assessment Scenario	59	(7)
Vapor Generation Techniques
Gas Law and Gas Concentration	66	(3)
Mole, Molar Weight, Molar Volume, and Mole Number	66	(1)
Ideal Gas Law	67	(1)
Vapor Concentration	68	(1)
Vapor Generation	69	(25)
Vapor Generation Methods	71	(1)
Evaporation Method	71	(3)
Saturation Method	74	(2)
High-Pressure Injection Method	76	(1)
Diffusion/Effusion Method	77	(1)
Permeation Method	78	(1)
Syringe-Pump Injection Method	79	(2)
Solid-State Vapor Generator	81	(1)
Compressed Gas or Gas Mixture	82	(1)
Chemical Reaction Method	82	(1)
Dilution and Mixing System	82	(1)
One-Stage Dilution System	83	(1)
Two-Stage Dilution System	83	(5)
Other Generation Techniques	88	(1)
Comparison of Generation Techniques	89	(4)
Humidification of Generated Vapor	93	(1)
Generation of CWA or TIC Vapor with Interferent Vapor	94	(6)
CWA Simulants	100	(4)
Detector Selection Factors
Selectivity	104	(1)
Sensitivity	105	(1)
Limit of Detection	106	(1)
Response Dynamic Range	106	(1)
Quantitative Analysis Capability	107	(1)
False Alarm Rate	107	(1)
Response Time	108	(1)
Resistance to Environmental Conditions	109	(1)
Setup and Warmup Time	109	(1)
Calibration/Verification in Field Applications	109	(1)
Other Factors	110	(4)
Ion Mobility Spectrometry
Principle of Operation	114	(2)
Drift	114	(1)
Collision	115	(1)
Diffusion	115	(1)
Detection	115	(1)
Instrumentation of Typical IMS Detector	116	(5)
Sample Inlet	117	(1)
Ionization Region	118	(1)
Ionization Sources	118	(1)
Ionization Processes	118	(1)
Charge Competition	119	(1)
Ion Injection Gate	120	(1)
Drift Tube	120	(1)
Ion Collector and Signal Processor	121	(1)
Technique Specification	121	(4)
Detectable Substances	121	(1)
Selectivity	122	(1)
Sensitivity and LOD	122	(1)
Response Dynamic Range and Quantitative Capacity	123	(1)
Resistance to Environmental Conditions	123	(1)
Other Specifications	124	(1)
Applications	125	(2)
Fact Sheets for Selected IMS-Based Detectors	127	(9)
Flame Photometry
Principle of Operation	136	(3)
Instrumentation	139	(5)
Direct Sample Introduction and GC Interface	140	(1)
Flame and Hydrogen Source	141	(1)
Hydrogen--Air Flame	141	(1)
Hydrogen Source	141	(1)
Signal Detection	142	(1)
Thermal and Wavelength Filters	142	(1)
PMT	142	(1)
Chemical Identification	143	(1)
Technical Specifications	144	(2)
Selectivity	144	(1)
Sensitivity and LOD	144	(1)
Response Dynamic Range	144	(1)
Quantitative Analysis Capability	145	(1)
False Alarm Rate	145	(1)
Response Time	145	(1)
Other Specifications	145	(1)
Pulsed Flame Photometry	146	(1)
Applications	146	(2)
Conclusion	148	(1)
Fact Sheets on Selected Photometry-Based Detectors	149	(5)
Infrared Spectroscopy
Principle of Operation	154	(6)
Infrared Sources	154	(2)
Molecular Absorption	156	(1)
Beer's Law	156	(3)
IR Transducers	159	(1)
Photoacoustic Effect	159	(1)
Instrumentation of Filter IR and Photoacoustic Detectors	160	(4)
IR Source and Wavelength Control	161	(1)
Sample Cell	161	(1)
IR Intensity Detectors	161	(1)
Photoacoustic Detectors	161	(2)
Detector Operation	163	(1)
Technique Specification of Filter and Photoacoustic IR Detectors	163	(1)
Detectable Substances and Selectivity	163	(1)
Sensitivity and LOD	164	(1)
Environmental Effect	164	(1)
Response Time	164	(1)
Fourier Transform Infrared Detectors	164	(4)
Interferometer	165	(1)
Fourier Transform	166	(1)
Background Handling	166	(1)
CWA and TIC Detection	167	(1)
Remote IR Monitors	168	(1)
Applications	168	(3)
Fact Sheets for Selected IR-Based Detectors	171	(7)
Surface Acoustic Wave and Electrochemical Techniques
Principle of Operation of SAW Devices	178	(5)
Piezoelectric Effect	178	(1)
Surface Acoustic Waves	178	(1)
Surface Sorption	179	(3)
SAW Chemical Sensor	182	(1)
Instrumentation	183	(3)
Sample Input	183	(1)
SAW Device	184	(1)
Temperature Effect and Compensation	185	(1)
Analysis Processes	186	(1)
Technical Specifications	186	(2)
Selectivity	186	(1)
Sensitivity, MDL, and Response Dynamic Range	187	(1)
Response Time	187	(1)
Applications	188	(2)
Electrochemical Sensors	190	(4)
Oxidation--Reduction Reactions	190	(1)
The Sensor	191	(2)
Operation, Sensitivity, and Selectivity	193	(1)
Fact Sheets for Selected SAW and/or Electrochemical Detectors	194	(4)
Colorimetric Technology
Principle of Operation	198	(1)
Instrumentation	198	(5)
Badge Monitoring Kit and Paper Spot Detector	199	(1)
Detection Tube	199	(2)
Advancing Tape-Based Colorimetric Detector	201	(2)
Applications	203	(3)
Fact Sheets on Selected Colorimetric Technique--Based Detectors	206	(4)
Photoionization and Flame Ionization Detection Techniques
Photoionization Technique	210	(4)
Photoionization	210	(1)
Ionization Source	211	(1)
Ion Detection	212	(1)
Instrumentation	212	(1)
Technique Specification	212	(2)
Flame Ionization Technology	214	(1)
Comparison of Photoionization, Flame Ionization, and Flame Photometric Techniques	215	(2)
Applications	217	(4)
Fact Sheet on Selected Photoionization and Flame Ionization Detectors	221	(4)
Future Trends in CWA and TIC Detection	225	(6)
Appendix A Material Safety Data Sheet	231	(10)
Appendix B Standing Operating Procedure	241	(8)
Appendix C Index of Chemical Agent Detectors and Supplies and Manufacturers	249	(2)
Glossary and Abbreviations	251	(4)
Bibliography	255	(4)
Index	259