The Developing Brain

by Brown, Michael; Keynes, Roger; Lumsden, Andrew

• ISBN13: 9780198547938
• ISBN10: 0198547935
• Format: Paperback
• Copyright: 2002-02-14
• Publisher: Oxford University Press

Summary

An up to date and comprehensive overview of the developing nervous system, with particular emphasis on the vertebrate brain. The past two decades have witnessed dramatic advances in our understanding of neural development in both invertebrates and vertebrates, Recent advances in the molecular genetic basis of development mechanisms are integrated with a synthesis of the classical literature to provide coverage of the key events, from the first appearance of the nervous system in the early embryo through postnatal and later stages. The book is intended for final year undergraduates, graduate students and postdocs doing courses in developmental neurobiology. The extensive reference list will also make it a useful source book for teachers and researchers in the field.

Table of Contents

Model system and review of early morphogenesis	1	(28)
Model systems for the study of neural development	1	(2)
Comparative and descriptive features of nervous system morphogenesis	3	(22)
Comparative aspects of early neural development in vertebrates and invertebrates	4	(1)
Morphogenesis of the invertebrate nervous system	5	(1)
Morphogenesis of the vertebrate nervous system	5	(2)
Neurulation	7	(1)
Neurulation in higher vertebrates	7	(2)
Secondary neurulation	9	(1)
Neurulation in fishes	10	(1)
The early brain vesicles and neuromeres	10	(3)
Definitive parts of the vertebrate brain	13	(1)
The spinal cord	13	(4)
Cell division within the neural tube	17	(1)
The neural crest and morphogenesis of the peripheral nervous system in vertebrates	18	(1)
Placodal ectoderm	19	(2)
Common ground-plans of development in insects and vertebrates	21	(1)
Differential cell adhesion and morphogenesis	22	(1)
The cadherins	23	(2)
Genetics of neural tube defects	25	(1)
General reading	25	(1)
References	26	(3)
Origins of the nervous system: neural induction	29	(24)
Spemann's organizer	31	(1)
The molecular basis of neural induction	32	(5)
Polarity and the establishment of the neuraxis	37	(6)
Vertical and planar signalling	39	(4)
The two-signal model of neural induction and axis polarization	43	(2)
Posteriorizing signals	43	(1)
Competence of the ectoderm	44	(1)
Specific pathways for head induction	45	(1)
Neural induction in the amniote embryo	46	(2)
Mediolateral extent of the neural plate	48	(1)
Key points	49	(1)
General reading	49	(1)
References	50	(3)
Patterning the central nervous system	53	(39)
Forebrain	54	(7)
Telencephalic regionalization	56	(4)
Diencephalic regionalization	60	(1)
Midbrain	61	(6)
The isthmic signalling region	62	(1)
Role of the Engrailed genes in establishing tectal polarity	63	(2)
Regulation of Engrailed expression	65	(2)
Hindbrain	67	(10)
Segmentation and neuronal pattern	68	(2)
Compartment-like properties of rhombomeres	70	(3)
Hox genes and rhombomere identity	73	(3)
Role of retinoids in Hox gene regulation and hindbrain patterning	76	(1)
Spinal cord	77	(7)
Dorsoventral pattern in the spinal cord	77	(3)
Role of Sonic hedgehog in ventral spinal cord patterning	80	(1)
Patterning influence of the dorsal ectoderm and roof plate	81	(1)
Role of Sonic hedgehog in dorsoventral patterning of the anterior CNS	82	(2)
Coordination of AP and DV patterning mechanisms	84	(2)
Key points	86	(1)
General reading	87	(1)
References	87	(5)
The emergence of neural fate	92	(34)
Neural cell fate determination in Drosophila	93	(11)
Proneural genes	96	(1)
Neurogenic genes	97	(2)
Sensory cell lineages	99	(3)
Asymmetric divisions and cell polarity during CNS neurogenesis	102	(2)
Neurogenesis in vertebrates	104	(6)
bHLH genes	105	(2)
Neurogenic genes	107	(1)
Regional variation in bHLH gene expression	107	(1)
Activation of neurogenic programmes by neural induction	108	(1)
Integration of neurogenic programmes with patterning mechanisms	109	(1)
Role of cell proliferation in the determination of fate	110	(4)
The cell cycle	111	(2)
Asymmetrical cell division	113	(1)
Development of specific neuronal types in vertebrates	114	(6)
The motor neuron	115	(4)
Developmental control of neurotransmitter phenotype	119	(1)
Key points	120	(1)
General reading	120	(1)
References	121	(5)
The neural crest	126	(23)
Early determination and individuation of the neural crest	127	(2)
Trunk neural crest	129	(6)
Migration pathways	129	(1)
Guidance molecules	130	(1)
Segmental crest migration through the somites	131	(1)
Integrins	132	(1)
Neural crest cell differentiation	132	(1)
Dorsal root gangliogenesis	133	(1)
Development of sympathetic neurons	133	(2)
Ligand-receptor systems involved in migration, proliferation and survival	135	(2)
Cranial neural crest	137	(6)
Prepatterning of the cranial crest	138	(1)
Migration of the cranial neural crest into the branchial arches	139	(3)
Influence of the local environment on cell type differentiation	142	(1)
Neurogenic placodes	143	(1)
Key points	144	(1)
General reading	145	(1)
References	146	(3)
Glia and myelination	149	(20)
Determination of glial fate in the CNS	150	(2)
Glial origins and migration in the neural tube	152	(1)
Control of glial numbers in the CNS	153	(1)
Schwann cells and the neuregulins	154	(2)
Association of axons with Schwann cells	156	(1)
Myelination	156	(3)
Ion channels	158	(1)
Myelination by oligodendrocytes	159	(1)
Trophic interactions between Schwann cells and neurons	159	(1)
Perineurium	160	(1)
The blood-brain barrier	160	(1)
Glial mutations in mouse and man	161	(2)
Key points	163	(1)
General reading	164	(1)
References	164	(5)
Development of cerebral cortex and cerebellar cortex	169	(25)
Development of cerebral cortex	169	(12)
Proliferation and production of cortical neurons	170	(4)
Migration of cortical neurons	174	(1)
Cortical lamination and differentiation	175	(2)
Reeler mice, reelin and human abnormalities of migration/lamination	177	(1)
Migration of olfactory bulb precursors	178	(2)
Regionalization of cerebral cortex	180	(1)
Cortical morphogenesis	181	(1)
Development of cerebellar cortex	181	(6)
Granule cell differentiation	182	(1)
Granule cell migration and radial glia	183	(1)
Purkinje cell migration and differentiation	184	(1)
Cerebellar compartments	185	(1)
Mutations affecting cerebellar development	186	(1)
Key points	187	(2)
General reading	189	(1)
References	189	(5)
Development of sense organs	194	(24)
The eye	194	(11)
The compound eye of the fly and some evolutionary considerations	194	(1)
Photoreceptor differentiation	195	(5)
Influence of axons on neurogenesis in retinal target tissues	200	(1)
The vertebrate eye	200	(5)
The inner ear	205	(3)
Development of the lateral line	207	(1)
Development of taste buds	208	(1)
Development of olfactory receptors	209	(1)
Development of peripheral sense organs	209	(2)
Key Points	211	(2)
General reading	213	(1)
References	213	(5)
Growth and guidance of axons and dendrites	218	(43)
The axon growth cone	219	(4)
Composition of the growth cone	219	(2)
Material is added to growing axons mainly at the growth cone	221	(1)
The role of adhesion in growth cone advance	222	(1)
Intercalated axonal growth	222	(1)
Factors affecting the rate and direction of axon growth	223	(3)
The role of the nerve cell body in axonal growth	224	(1)
Choice points	224	(1)
Fasciculation	225	(1)
Axon guidance by attraction	226	(11)
Adhesion molecules and axon growth-CAMs, extracellular matrix molecules and integrins	226	(4)
Examples of individual adhesion molecules	230	(2)
Extracellular matrix molecules (SAMs) and integrins	232	(1)
Chemotropism	233	(2)
Identity and mode of action of chemoattractant molecules	235	(1)
Interstitial axon branching	236	(1)
Axon guidance by repulsion	237	(3)
Identity and mode of action of repulsion molecules	238	(2)
Bifunctional axon guidance molecules	240	(1)
Axon guidance at the embryonic midline: analysis by genetic screens	240	(2)
The growth cone response	242	(4)
Axon guidance and the determination of neuronal phenotype	246	(1)
Galvanotropism	246	(1)
Neuronal polarity and the development of differences between axons and dendrites	247	(1)
Dendritic growth and nerve cell shape and size	248	(2)
Key points	250	(1)
General reading	251	(1)
References	251	(10)
The formation of topographic maps	261	(20)
Target invasion	261	(2)
Type specificity	263	(1)
Place or positional specificity	263	(1)
Origins of the concept of chemospecificity	263	(3)
Molecular basis of chemospecificity	266	(3)
Olfactory mapping	269	(1)
Setting up instructions for axon targeting	270	(1)
Layer-specific axon targeting	271	(1)
Topographic axon projections to the cerebral cortex	272	(2)
Development of efferent projections from the cerebral cortex	274	(1)
Axon targeting in the insect neuromuscular system	274	(2)
Key points	276	(1)
General reading	276	(1)
References	277	(4)
Synapse formation	281	(18)
Formation of the neuromuscular junction of skeletal muscle	281	(10)
The signals used by muscle fibres to induce changes in the motor nerve	285	(1)
Halting motor axon growth	285	(2)
Promoting transmitter release and motor neuron survival	287	(1)
Mechanisms by which the motor axon induces changes in the muscle	288	(1)
The role of electrical activity	288	(1)
Agrin	289	(1)
ARIA/neuregulin	290	(1)
Position of endplates	291	(1)
Synapse formation in the CNS	291	(3)
Key points	294	(1)
General reading	294	(1)
References	295	(4)
Neurotrophic factors and their receptors	299	(18)
The neurotrophins	300	(2)
Neurotrophin Trk receptors	300	(2)
The low-affinity neurotrophin receptor p75NTR	302	(1)
GDNF and relatives	302	(1)
CNTF and relatives	303	(1)
HGF	303	(1)
Functions of neurotrophic factors	304	(7)
Role of neurotrophic factors in regulating cell death	304	(2)
Control of neuroblast and glial, cell numbers by neurotrophic factors	306	(1)
Control of the phenotype of some developing sensory and autonomic neurons	307	(1)
Regulation of axon growth during development	308	(2)
Regulation of the physiological sensitivity of primary sensory neurons	310	(1)
Regulation of synaptic transmission and plasticity in the postnatal and adult nervous system	310	(1)
Role of neurotrophic factors following nerve injury	310	(1)
Key points	311	(1)
General reading	311	(1)
References	311	(6)
Nerve cell death	317	(21)
Target-dependent nerve cell death	320	(6)
Death of neurons whose axons fail to reach a target	320	(1)
Death of neurons that make connection errors	321	(1)
Matching pre- and postsynaptic numbers of neurons by neuronal death	322	(2)
Additional factors affecting nerve cell death in vertebrates	324	(1)
Problems in target-dependent neuronal death in vertebrates	325	(1)
Neuronal death in invertebrates	326	(2)
Mechanisms of nerve cell death	328	(2)
Caspases	328	(1)
The ced-9/bcl-2 family	329	(1)
ced4 and its homologues	330	(1)
Receptor-activated death	330	(1)
Neurotrophins and cell death	331	(1)
Key points	332	(1)
General reading	333	(1)
References	333	(5)
Rearrangement and stabilization of synaptic connections	338	(35)
Multiple innervation at the neonatal neuromuscular junction and its elimination	339	(6)
Mechanisms of synapse elimination in skeletal muscle	340	(3)
Role of changes in the motor neuron cell body	343	(1)
Selection of which branch to lose	343	(2)
Synaptic reorganization in autonomic ganglia	345	(2)
Synaptic reorganization in the CNS	347	(9)
The visual pathway: normal synaptic development, critical periods, electrical activity and competition	347	(2)
Lateral geniculate nucleus	349	(2)
Cortical layer IV	351	(1)
Eye-dominance stripes in the tectum of three-eyed frogs	352	(1)
Receptive fields of neurons within the visual cortex	353	(1)
Development of binocular receptive fields	354	(1)
Development of orientation selectivity	354	(1)
Anatomical changes during intracortical remodelling	355	(1)
Further examples of synaptic reorganization in the developing brain	356	(3)
Multiple climbing fibre inputs on Purkinje cells	356	(1)
Auditory system	356	(1)
Somatosensory system	357	(1)
Temperature regulation circuits	358	(1)
Aberrant collaterals	358	(1)
Possible mechanisms underlying changes in' neural connections	359	(5)
Role of neurotrophins in synaptic plasticity	361	(2)
Expansion of synaptic circuitry during the critical period	363	(1)
What controls the duration of the critical period?	363	(1)
Conclusions	364	(1)
Key points	365	(1)
General reading	366	(1)
References	367	(6)
The synaptic basis of learning	373	(22)
Habituation, sensitization and associative learning in Aplysia	373	(5)
Associative learning in Hermissenda	378	(1)
Parallels with findings in Drosophila	378	(1)
Long-term potentiation and depression in the hippocampus	379	(5)
LTP and long-term changes in synaptic strength elsewhere in the brain	380	(1)
Induction and maintenance of LTP	381	(3)
Biochemical pathways involved in LTP	384	(3)
Mechanism of LTD	386	(1)
Effects of interfering with LTP and LTD mechanisms on learning in the whole animal	387	(2)
Conclusions	389	(1)
Key points	389	(1)
General reading	390	(1)
References	390	(5)
Trophic interactions between neurons in the adult nervous system	395	(21)
Orthograde trophic effects on peripheral nerve	397	(3)
Orthograde trophic effects on mammalian skeletal muscle	400	(3)
Can motor nerves influence muscle contractile and membrane properties outside the junctional region by means other than activity?	402	(1)
Frog slow' muscle	403	(1)
Orthograde trophic effects in other tissues	403	(3)
Some examples of orthograde trophic effects in neurons	403	(2)
Sensory end organs	405	(1)
Effects of nerves on limb regeneration	405	(1)
Trophic effects in invertebrates	405	(1)
Conclusions about orthograde trophic effects	406	(1)
Retrograde trophic effects	406	(3)
Cell death following axotomy	407	(1)
Possible causes of the cell body reaction to injury	407	(2)
Conclusions	409	(1)
Key points	410	(1)
General reading	410	(1)
References	411	(5)
Repair and plasticity in the adult vertebrate nervous system	416	(29)
Axon regeneration	417	(5)
Changes in the distal nerve stump of possible importance for regeneration	419	(1)
The cell body reaction and `conditioning' of axon regeneration	420	(1)
Accuracy of peripheral nerve regeneration	421	(1)
Unwanted side-effects of peripheral nerve lesions	421	(1)
Regeneration in the mammalian CNS	422	(3)
Absence of growth stimuli for sustained regeneration	422	(1)
Presence of axon growth inhibitors	423	(1)
Intrinsic reduction in growth potential	424	(1)
Transplanted neurons	425	(1)
Stem cells in the adult brain	425	(2)
Collateral sprouting	427	(5)
Mechanisms that may stimulate collateral sprouting following injury	429	(1)
Breakdown products from degenerating axons and myelin	429	(1)
Production of growth factors by denervated tissue	430	(1)
Production of growth factors by Schwann cells	430	(1)
Production of stimuli by axotomized neurons	431	(1)
Cell body reaction and growth-promoting surfaces in collateral sprouting	431	(1)
Activation of `suppressed synapses'	432	(3)
Purpose and mechanism of synaptic repression	434	(1)
Key Points	435	(1)
General reading	436	(1)
References	436	(9)
Index	445