Developing and Using Classroom Assessments

by Oosterhof, Albert

• ISBN13: 9780130942043
• ISBN10: 0130942049
• Edition: 3rd
• Format: Paperback
• Copyright: 2003-01-01
• Publisher: Pearson College Div

Summary

This brief, inexpensive book focuses on how to write, construct, and use assessments in the classroom. It continues to take a balanced approach to assessment, involving both traditional and innovative techniques. It includes the development and use of written tests, informal assessments, portfolios, and performance assessments. This balanced approach to assessment is what prospective teachers need when they get into the classroom. Coverage includes integrating assessments into the learning process, showing the implications of research in cognitive psychology and showing how classroom assessments can facilitate transfer of learning and development of problem solving skills. For professionals in the field of Educational Psychology or anyone interested in teaching methods.

Table of Contents

Introduction	1	(8)
Significance of Measurement	1	(1)
Distinction among Measurement, Assessment, and Evaluation	2	(2)
Distinction between Formal and Informal Assessments	4	(1)
Roles of Assessment in the Classroom	4	(1)
Maximum versus Typical Performance	5	(2)
Summary	7	(2)
PART I How to Establish a Framework for Assessing Your Students	9	(54)
Determining How Your Assessments Will Be Interpreted and Used	11	(9)
Frames of Reference for Interpreting Performance	11	(2)
Ability-Referenced Interpretations	11	(1)
Growth-Referenced Interpretations	12	(1)
Norm-Referenced and Criterion-Referenced Interpretations	13	(1)
Meaning of Criterion-and Norm-Referenced Interpretations	13	(3)
Choosing the Appropriate Interpretation	16	(2)
Interpretations for Preliminary Evaluations	17	(1)
Interpretations for Diagnostic Evaluations	17	(1)
Interpretations for Formative Evaluations	17	(1)
Interpretations for Summative Evaluations	18	(1)
Summary	18	(1)
Answers: Apply What You Are Learning	18	(1)
Something to Try	18	(1)
Additional Reading	19	(1)
Measurable Objectives and Goals	20	(14)
Categories of Learning Outcomes	20	(7)
Declarative Knowledge	22	(1)
Procedural Knowledge	23	(3)
Problem Solving	26	(1)
Attitudes	26	(1)
Components of Performance Objectives	27	(2)
Name of Capability	27	(1)
Behavior	28	(1)
Situation	28	(1)
Special Conditions	29	(1)
Selection of Performance Objectives	29	(2)
Describe the Results of Learning	29	(1)
Use Relevant Behavior as Indicators	30	(1)
Assess All Critical Aspects of the Knowledge	30	(1)
Assess an Appropriate Sample of Knowledge	30	(1)
Conveying Performance Objectives to Students	31	(1)
Goals versus Performance Objectives	31	(1)
Summary	32	(1)
Answers: Apply What You Are Learning	33	(1)
Something to Try	33	(1)
Additional Reading	33	(1)
Gathering Evidence of Validity	34	(13)
Construct-Related Evidence of Validity	35	(2)
Declarative Knowledge	35	(1)
Procedural Knowledge	35	(1)
Problem Solving	36	(1)
Content-Related Evidence of Validity	37	(3)
Table of Specifications	37	(1)
Performance Objectives	38	(1)
Applications to Formal Classroom Assessments	39	(1)
Applications to Informal Assessments	40	(1)
Criterion-Related Evidence of Validity	40	(1)
Applications to Formal Classroom Assessments	41	(1)
Applications to Informal Assessments	41	(1)
Valid Interpretation and Use of Tests	41	(4)
Messick's Expanded View of Validity	42	(1)
The 1999 Standards	43	(2)
Summary	45	(1)
Answers: Apply What You Are Learning	45	(1)
Something to Try	46	(1)
Additional Reading	46	(1)
Generalizing Observed Performance to Unobserved Performance	47	(16)
Why Observations Do Not Generalize	47	(5)
Inconsistencies between Earlier and Later Measures	48	(1)
Inconsistencies between Tasks That Supposedly Measure the Same Skill	48	(1)
Inconsistencies among Alternative Skills in the Same Content Domain	49	(1)
Inconsistencies Internal to a Test Score	50	(2)
Inconsistencies among Raters of Scores	52	(1)
Inconsistencies in Decisions Based on Student Performance	52	(1)
Methods for Detecting Inconsistencies	52	(4)
Reliability Coefficients	53	(2)
Generalizability Theory	55	(1)
Techniques for Improving Generalizability	56	(3)
Improving the Quality of Observations	56	(1)
Improving the Scoring of Performances	57	(1)
Increasing the Number of Observations	57	(1)
Expanding the Breadth of Observations	58	(1)
Relation of Generalizability to Validity	59	(1)
Summary	59	(1)
Answers: Apply What You Are Learning	60	(1)
Something to Try	60	(1)
Additional Reading	61	(2)
PART II How to Develop, Administer, and Score Written Tests	63	(66)
Completion and Short-Answer Items	64	(7)
Advantages and Limitations of Short-Answer Items	64	(1)
Advantages of Short-Answer Items	64	(1)
Limitations of Short-Answer Items	65	(1)
Identifying Qualities Desired in Short-Answer Items	65	(3)
Practice Applying These Desired Qualities to Short-Answer Items	68	(1)
Summary	69	(1)
Answers: Apply What You Are Learning	69	(1)
Something to Try	70	(1)
Additional Reading	70	(1)
Essay Items	71	(14)
Advantages and Limitations of Essay Items	71	(2)
Advantages of Essay Items	71	(1)
Limitations of Essay Items	72	(1)
Identifying Qualities Desired in Essay Items	73	(5)
Desirability of Using Brief-Response versus Extended-Response Questions	73	(1)
Criteria for Evaluating Essay Items	74	(4)
Practice Applying These Desired Qualities to Essay Items	78	(3)
Scoring Students' Responses to Essay Items	81	(2)
Analytical versus Holistic Scoring	81	(1)
Reading Responses to Multiple versus Single Items	82	(1)
Reading Students' Papers in a Variable versus Consistent Order	82	(1)
Concealing the Identity of Students	82	(1)
Using Multiple Readers	82	(1)
Using Diversity of Responses as an Indicator of Item Ambiguity	83	(1)
Summary	83	(1)
Answers: Apply What You Are Learning	83	(1)
Something to Try	84	(1)
Additional Reading	84	(1)
Multiple-Choice Items	85	(18)
Advantages and Limitations of Multiple-Choice Items	86	(3)
Advantages of Multiple-Choice Items	86	(1)
Limitations of Multiple-Choice Items	87	(2)
Identifying Qualities Desired in Multiple-Choice Items	89	(5)
Practice Applying These Desired Qualities to Multiple-Choice Items	94	(3)
Variations of Multiple-Choice Items	97	(3)
Options Representing Ranges of Values	97	(1)
Matching Items	97	(2)
Ranking of Options	99	(1)
Interpretive Test Exercises	99	(1)
Optimal Number of Choices	100	(1)
Summary	101	(1)
Answers: Apply What You Are Learning	101	(1)
Something to Try	102	(1)
Additional Reading	102	(1)
Alternate-Choice Items	103	(15)
Variations of Alternate-Choice Items	104	(3)
Traditional True-False Items	104	(1)
True-False Requiring Corrections	104	(1)
Embedded Alternate-Choice Items	104	(1)
Multiple True-False Items	105	(1)
Sequential True-False Items	106	(1)
Focused Alternate-Choice Items	106	(1)
Checklists	107	(1)
Advantages and Limitations of Alternate-Choice Items	107	(2)
Advantages of Alternate-Choice Items	107	(1)
Limitations of Alternate-Choice Items	108	(1)
Identifying Qualities Desired in Alternate-Choice Items	109	(3)
Practice Applying These Desired Qualities to Alternate-Choice Items	112	(3)
Summary	115	(1)
Answers: Apply What You Are Learning	115	(1)
Something to Try	116	(1)
Additional Reading	117	(1)
Learning How to Take Written Tests	118	(11)
Familiarity with the Testing Medium	118	(1)
Administering Tests by Computer versus Paper and Pencil	118	(1)
Use of Separate Answer Sheets	119	(1)
Preparing for a Test	119	(2)
The Effect of Coaching	119	(1)
Conditions That Depress Test Performance	120	(1)
The Effects of Anxiety	120	(1)
Testwiseness	121	(5)
Using Time Effectively	121	(1)
Avoiding Errors	122	(1)
Eliminating Incorrect Alternatives	123	(1)
Knowing When to Guess	124	(1)
Being Responsive to the Teacher's Intentions	124	(1)
Accounting for Idiosyncrasies Built into Test Items	124	(2)
Overview of Testwiseness	126	(1)
Summary	126	(1)
Answers: Apply What You Are Learning	126	(1)
Something to Try	126	(1)
Additional Reading	127	(2)
PART III How to Develop, Administer, and Score Alternative Assessments	129	(68)
Informal Observations and Questions	130	(17)
Characteristics of Informal Observations and Questions	130	(6)
Guidelines for Using Informal Observations	136	(5)
Know What to Observe	137	(1)
Know When to Limit How Much Is to Be Observed	138	(1)
Be Familiar with What Is Being Observed	138	(1)
Avoid Extended Inferences	139	(1)
Form and Then Substantiate Hypotheses	139	(1)
Recognize That Observations Overestimate Achievement	140	(1)
Help Students Participate in Observations	140	(1)
Document Observations That Must Later Be Recalled	141	(1)
Guidelines for Using Informal Questions	141	(2)
Develop Questions from Instructional Goals	141	(1)
Establish a Clear Problem for Students to Address	142	(1)
Allow Sufficient Time for Responses	142	(1)
Avoid Embarrassing or Intimidating Students	143	(1)
Recognize the Importance of Reactions to Answers	143	(1)
Record Keeping	143	(2)
Anecdotal Records	143	(1)
Checklists and Rating Scales	144	(1)
Summary	145	(1)
Answers: Apply What You Are Learning	146	(1)
Something to Try	146	(1)
Additional Reading	146	(1)
Considerations When Using Performance Assessments	147	(15)
Characteristics of Performance Assessments	148	(4)
Categories of Performance Assessments	149	(1)
Advantages of Performance Assessments	150	(1)
Limitations of Performance Assessments	150	(1)
Performance Assessments in Standardized Tests	151	(1)
Options for Scoring Performance Assessments	152	(6)
Checklists and Rating Scales	152	(3)
Scoring Rubrics	155	(3)
Actions to Take Before Creating a Performance Assessment	158	(1)
Identify Authentic Tasks	158	(1)
Identify Concise Goals That Will Be Assessed	158	(1)
Determine Whether the Assessment Will Focus on Process or Product	159	(1)
Tell Students What Will Be Expected of Them	159	(1)
Determine That Students Have Mastered Prerequisite Skills	159	(1)
Summary	159	(1)
Something to Try	160	(1)
Additional Reading	160	(2)
Creating Performance Assessments	162	(19)
Establishing the Capability to Be Assessed	163	(2)
Establishing the Performance to Be Observed	165	(4)
Domain of Tasks Associated with Goal Being Assessed	165	(2)
Description of Task to Be Performed	167	(1)
Focus on Process or Product?	168	(1)
Prerequisite Skills to Be Verified	168	(1)
Required Materials	169	(1)
Guidelines for Administration	169	(1)
Instructions to Students	169	(1)
Establishing a Plan for Scoring Students' Performance	169	(1)
Additional Examples of Creating Performance Assessments	170	(9)
Example 1: Knowing Tense of a Verb within a Sentence	171	(1)
Example 2: Telling Time with a Clock	172	(2)
Example 3: Getting Help by Phone in an Emergency	174	(2)
Example 4: Using Ratios of Area to Solve Common Problems	176	(3)
Summary	179	(1)
Answers: Apply What You Are Learning	179	(1)
Something to Try	180	(1)
Additional Reading	180	(1)
Portfolios	181	(16)
Characteristics of Portfolios	181	(5)
Adaptable to Individualized Instructional Goals	182	(1)
Focus on Assessment of Products	182	(1)
Identify Students' Strengths Rather Than Weaknesses	183	(1)
Actively Involve Students in the Evaluation Process	183	(1)
Communicate Student Achievement to Others	184	(1)
Time Intensive	184	(1)
Generalizability	185	(1)
Designing Student Portfolios	186	(8)
Establish How the Portfolio Will Be Used	186	(1)
Center the Content of Portfolios on Instructional Goals	187	(1)
Translate Instructional Goals into Student Performance	188	(1)
Plan the Student into the Assessment Process	189	(2)
Take Steps to Make Review of Portfolios More Efficient	191	(2)
Use Multiple Observations to Increase Generalizability	193	(1)
Guiding Students' Use of Portfolios	194	(1)
Summary	194	(1)
Something to Try	195	(1)
Additional Reading	195	(2)
PART IV How to Use Assessments	197	(46)
Integrating Assessment into Instruction	198	(18)
Integrating Assessment When Helping Learners Become Experts	199	(7)
Declarative and Procedural Knowledge	200	(3)
Problem Solving and Transfer	203	(1)
Some Implications to Classroom Assessment	204	(2)
Integrating Assessment When Helping Learners Construct New Knowledge	206	(2)
The Role of Prior Knowledge	207	(1)
The Role of Feedback	207	(1)
Some Additional Implications to Classroom Assessment	208	(1)
Relevance of Validity and Generalizability to Integrating Assessment	208	(4)
Establishing Evidence of Validity	209	(2)
Generalizing Observed Performance to Unobserved Performance	211	(1)
Implications to External Assessments	212	(2)
Summary	214	(1)
Something to Try	215	(1)
Additional Reading	215	(1)
Assigning Grades and Reporting Student Performance	216	(12)
Alternative Reporting Systems	216	(5)
Percentage Grades	216	(1)
Letter Grades	217	(1)
Pass-Fail Marks	218	(1)
Checklists	219	(1)
Written Descriptions	220	(1)
Parent Conferences	220	(1)
Establishing Grading Criteria	221	(3)
Nature and Number of Assessments	221	(1)
Determining the Weight to Be Given Each Assessment	222	(1)
Establishing Performance Standards	222	(2)
Role of Grades in Motivating and Disciplining Students	224	(2)
Use of Grades to Motivate Students	224	(1)
Use of Grades to Discipline Students	225	(1)
Summary	226	(1)
Answers: Apply What You Are Learning	226	(1)
Something to Try	227	(1)
Additional Reading	227	(1)
Interpreting and Using Standardized Tests	228	(15)
Distinction between Aptitude and Achievement Tests	228	(1)
Purpose of Aptitude and Achievement Tests	228	(1)
Skills Measured by Aptitude and Achievement Tests	229	(1)
Interpreting Scores Commonly Used with Standardized Tests	229	(8)
Standard Scores	230	(4)
Percentile Ranks	234	(1)
Grade Equivalents	235	(2)
Scaled Scores	237	(1)
Using Standardized Tests in the Classroom	237	(3)
Grouping Students According to Ability	237	(1)
Determining the Needs of Individual Students	238	(1)
Identifying Students Who Will Receive Special Education	239	(1)
Summary	240	(1)
Answers: Apply What You Are Learning	241	(1)
Something to Try	241	(1)
Additional Reading	242	(1)
Appendix: Professional Opportunities in Assessment	243	(2)
References	245	(6)
Name Index	251	(2)
Subject Index	253

Excerpts

This book and the accompanying Web site provide a significant but succinct discussion of the development and use of classroom assessments. The book is designed for college courses and other settings for which a full survey textbook is inappropriate in terms of coverage and cost. Developing and Using Classroom Assessmentsis particularly appropriate in the following settings: An educational psychology course that includes a substantive discussion of assessment An integrated methods course in which assessment is taught as one of several components A full-length assessment course that uses a series of readings or involves the class in extensive field experience Self-study by school teachers and post-secondary instructors FEATURES OP THIS BOOK This book engages the reader. To illustrate, take time to page through the book and you will find numerous queries embedded in the text. Each is labeled "Apply What You Are Learning" and invites the reader to immediately apply recently learned concepts to realistic situations. Subsequent text often builds on these queries. This book also engages readers by drawing upon the considerable experience each of us has had with assessments as students and teachers. The introduction to each chapter uses familiar situations to establish relevance for issues to be addressed. Each chapter concludes with activities that connect the content of that chapter to real-world needs in the classroom. Developing and Using Classroom Assessmentsalso incorporates the broader context within which classroom assessments occur. For instance, the major implications of cognitive psychology to assessment are discussed throughout the book, such as the differences between declarative and procedural knowledge, the nature of problem solving, and options for assessing each. Similarly, in recognition that informal assessments represent a high proportion of classroom assessment activities, a full chapter is devoted to using informal observations and questions, and another chapter addresses their use to integrate assessment into instruction. ORGANIZATION Developing and Using Classroom Assessmentsis organized into four parts. Part I provides the teacher with a framework for assessing students. Components of this framework include determining how results of an assessment will be used, establishing the behaviors that indicate whether or not learning has taken place, gathering evidence to determine whether an assessment is valid, and establishing whether it is reasonable to generalize from observed performance to unobserved performance. These components of the assessment framework are illustrated with practical and familiar examples. This assessment framework is then applied extensively in Parts II, III, and IV of the book. Parts II and III are concerned with the development, administration, and scoring of assessments. Part II focuses on written tests, including the essay, short-answer, and objectively scored formats. In Chapters 6 through 9, the reader learns when and how to use each format, including nontrivial attributes that should be built into each type of test item. The reader immediately practices what has been learned by critiquing a combination of well-constructed and faulty test items. Chapter 10 is concerned with helping students take written tests. Part III focuses on alternative assessments, including informal observations and questions, performance assessments, and portfolios. Books on assessment often provide a cursory treatment of the casual observation and questioning of students, even though these informal assessments provide the basis for most formative evaluations in the classroom. Chapter 11 discusses these assessments in some detail. It identifies qualities critical to casual questioning and observation and illustrates their relevance through analogies to social interactions