Developmental Biology

by Gilbert, Scott F.

• ISBN13: 9780878932436
• ISBN10: 0878932437
• Edition: CD
• Format: Hardcover
• Copyright: 2000-06-01
• Publisher: Sinauer Associates Inc

Summary

Introductory textbook emphasizing a core of developmental biology paradigms and principles. Includes color illustrations, chapter-end summaries, and a CD-ROM that complements the text. Also, the text is linked to a website which is keyed to the text's chapters. System requirements: Windows 95/98/NT+ or Mac OS 8.5+, 64MB RAM, and 20MB free space. Previous edition: c1997.

Table of Contents

part 1 Principles of development in biology
Developmental biology: The anatomical tradition	3	(22)
The Questions of Developmental Biology	4	(1)
Anatomical Approaches to Developmental Biology	4	(1)
Comparative Embryology	5	(9)
Epigenesis and Preformation	6	(2)
Naming the Parts: The Primary Germ Layers and Early Organs	8	(1)
The Four Principles of Karl Ernst von Baer	9	(1)
Fate Mapping the Embryo	10	(3)
Cell Migration	13	(1)
Evolutionary Embryology	14	(3)
Embryonic Homologies	15	(2)
Medical Embryology and Teratology	17	(1)
Mathematical Modeling of Development	18	(4)
The Mathematics of Organismal Growth	18	(1)
The Mathematics of Patterning	19	(3)
Principles of Development: Developmental Anatomy	22	(1)
Literature Cited	23	(2)
Life cycles and the evolution of developmental patterns	25	(24)
The Circle of Life: The Stages of Animal Development	25	(2)
The Frog Life Cycle	27	(4)
The Evolution of Developmental Patterns in Unicellular Protists	31	(4)
Control of Developmental Morphogenesis: The Role of the Nucleus	31	(1)
Unicellular Protists and the Origins of Sexual Reproduction	32	(3)
Multicellularity: The Evolution of Differentiation	35	(9)
The Volvocaceans	35	(1)
Sex and Individuality in Volvox	36	(3)
Differentiation and Morphogenesis in Dictyostelium: Cell Adhesion	39	(4)
Evidence and Antibodies	43	(1)
Developmental Patterns among the Metazoa	44	(3)
Diploblasts	44	(1)
Protostomes and Deuterostomes	44	(3)
Principles of Development: Life Cycles and Developmental Patterns	47	(1)
Literature Cited	47	(2)
Principles of experimental embryology	49	(30)
Environmental Developmental Biology	49	(5)
Environmental Sex Determination	50	(1)
Adaptation of Embryos and Larvae to Their Environments	50	(4)
The Developmental Mechanics of Cell Specification	54	(12)
Autonomous Specification	54	(2)
Conditional Specification	56	(10)
Syncytial Specification	66	(1)
Morphogenesis and Cell Adhesion	66	(9)
Differential Cell Affinity	67	(2)
The Thermodynamic Model of Cell Interactions	69	(2)
Cadherins and Cell Adhesion	71	(4)
Principles of Development: Experimental Embryology	75	(1)
Literature Cited	75	(4)
Genes and development: Techniques and ethical issues	79	(30)
The Embryological Origins of the Gene Theory	79	(4)
Nucleus or Cytoplasm: Which Controls Heredity?	79	(2)
The Split between Embryology and Genetics	81	(1)
Early Attempts at Developmental Genetics	82	(1)
Evidence for Genomic Equivalence	83	(8)
Metaplasia	83	(1)
Amphibian Cloning: The Restriction of Nuclear Potency	83	(2)
Amphibian Cloning: The Pluripotency of Somatic Cells	85	(2)
Cloning Mammals	87	(1)
Why Clone Mammals?	88	(2)
The Exception to the Rule: Immunoglobin Genes	90	(1)
Differential Gene Expression	91	(1)
RNA Localization Techniques	92	(5)
Northern Blotting	92	(1)
In Situ Hybridization	93	(1)
Whole-Mount In Situ Hybridization	94	(1)
The Polymerase Chain Reaction	95	(2)
Determining the Function of Genes during Development	97	(6)
Transgenic Cells and Organisms	97	(3)
Human Germ Line Gene Therapy	100	(2)
Determining the Function of a Message: Antisense RNA	102	(1)
Identifying the Genes for Human Developmental Anomalies	103	(2)
Principles of Development: Genes and Development	105	(1)
Literature Cited	105	(4)
The genetic core of development: Differential gene expression	109	(34)
Differential Gene Transcription	109	(16)
Anatomy of the Gene: Exons and Introns	109	(4)
Anatomy of the Gene: Promoters and Enhancers	113	(3)
Transcription Factors	116	(3)
Studying DNA Regulatory Elements	119	(3)
Silencers	122	(1)
Locus Control Regions in Globin Genes	123	(2)
Methylation Pattern and the Control of Transcription	125	(1)
DNA Methylation and Gene Activity	125	(1)
Possible Mechanisms by which Methylation Represses Gene Transcription	125	(1)
Genomic Imprinting	126	(1)
Transcriptional Regulation of An Entire Chromosome: Dosage Compensation	126	(4)
The Mechanisms of X Chromosome Inactivation	128	(2)
Differential RNA Processing	130	(4)
Control of Early Development by Nuclear RNA Selection	130	(1)
Creating Families of Proteins through Differential nRNA Splicing	131	(2)
Differential nRNA Processing and Drosophila Sex Determination	133	(1)
Control of Gene Expression at the Level of Translation	134	(2)
Differential mRNA Longevity	134	(1)
Selective Inhibition of mRNA Translation	134	(2)
Control of RNA Expression by Cytoplasmic Localization	136	(1)
Epilogue: Posttranslational Gene Regulation	136	(1)
Principles of Development: Developmental Genetics	137	(1)
Literature Cited	138	(5)
Cell-cell communication in development	143	(42)
Induction and Competence	143	(6)
Cascades of Induction: Reciprocal and Sequential Inductive Events	145	(1)
Instructive and Permissive Interactions	146	(2)
Epithelial-Mesenchymal Interactions	148	(1)
Paracrine Factors	149	(4)
The Fibroblast Growth Factors	150	(1)
The Hedgehog Family	151	(1)
The Wnt Family	152	(1)
The TGF-β Superfamily	152	(1)
Other Paracrine Factors	153	(1)
Cell Surface Receptors and Their Signal Transduction Pathways	153	(12)
The RTK Pathway	154	(2)
The RTK Pathway and Cell-to-Cell Induction	156	(2)
The Smad Pathway	158	(1)
The JAK-STAT Pathway	159	(2)
The Wnt Pathway	161	(1)
The Hedgehog Pathway	162	(1)
The Nature of Human Syndromes	163	(2)
The Cell Death Pathways	165	(2)
Juxtacrine Signaling	167	(7)
The Notch Pathway: Juxtaposed Ligands and Receptors	167	(2)
Cell-Cell Interactions and Chance in the Determination of Cell Types	169	(1)
The Extracellular Matrix as a Source of Critical Developmental Signals	170	(3)
Direct Transmission of Signals through Gap Junctions	173	(1)
Cross-Talk between Pathways	174	(1)
Coda	175	(1)
Principles of Development: Cell-Cell Communication	176	(1)
Literature Cited	177	(8)
part 2 Early embryonic development
Fertilization: Beginning a new organism	185	(38)
Structure of the Gametes	185	(6)
Sperm	185	(3)
The Egg	188	(3)
Recognition of Egg and Sperm	191	(8)
Sperm Attraction: Action at a Distance	191	(2)
The Acrosomal Reaction in Sea Urchins	193	(1)
Action at a Distance: Mammalian Gametes	194	(2)
Species-Specific Recognition in Sea Urchins	196	(2)
Gamete Binding and Recognition in Mammals	198	(1)
Gamete Fusion and the Prevention of Polyspermy	199	(7)
Fusion of the Egg and Sperm Plasma Membranes	199	(1)
The Prevention of Polyspermy	200	(6)
The Activation of Egg Metabolism	206	(4)
Early Responses	206	(2)
The Activation of Gamete Metabolism	208	(2)
Late Responses	210	(1)
Fusion of the Genetic Material	210	(4)
Fusion of Genetic Material in Sea Urchins	210	(2)
Fusion of Genetic Material in Mammals	212	(1)
The Nonequivalence of Mammalian Pronuclei	213	(1)
Rearrangement of the Egg Cytoplasm	214	(2)
Preparation for Cleavage	215	(1)
Snapshot Summary	216	(1)
Literature Cited	217	(6)
Early development in selected invertebrates	223	(40)
An Introduction to Early Developmental Processes	223	(1)
Cleavage	223	(5)
From Fertilization to Cleavage	224	(1)
The Cytoskeletal Mechanisms of Mitosis	225	(1)
Patterns of Embryonic Cleavage	226	(2)
Gastrulation	228	(1)
Axis Formation	229	(1)
The Early Development of Sea Urchins	229	(1)
Cleavage in Sea Urchins	229	(5)
Blastula Formation	230	(1)
Fate Maps and the Determination of Sea Urchin Blastomeres	231	(3)
Sea Urchin Gastrulation	234	(7)
Ingression of Primary Mesenchyme	235	(3)
First Stage of Archenteron Invagination	238	(1)
Second and Third Stages of Archenteron Invagination	239	(2)
The Early Development of Snails	241	(1)
Cleavage in Snail Eggs	241	(6)
Adaptation by Modifying Embryonic Cleavage	243	(1)
The Polar Lobe: Cell Determination and Axis Formation	244	(2)
Fate Map of Ilyanassa obsoleta	246	(1)
Gastrulation in Snails	247	(1)
Early Development in Tunicates	247	(1)
Tunicate Cleavage	247	(4)
The Tunicate Fate Map	248	(1)
Autonomous and Conditional Specification of Tunicate Blastomeres	249	(1)
Specification of the Embryonic Axes	250	(1)
Gastrulation in Tunicates	251	(1)
Early Development of the Nematode Caenorhabditis elegans	251	(1)
Why C. elegans?	251	(2)
Cleavage and Axis Formation in C. elegans	253	(4)
Rotational Cleavage of the C. elegans Egg	253	(1)
Anterior-Posterior Axis Formation	253	(1)
Formation of the Dorsal-Ventral and Right-Left Axes	253	(1)
Control of Blastomere Identity	253	(1)
Autonomous Specification	254	(1)
Conditional Specification	255	(2)
Gastrulation in C. elegans	257	(1)
Coda	257	(1)
Snapshot Summary	257	(1)
Literature Cited	258	(5)
The genetics of axis specification in Drosophila	263	(40)
Early Drosophila Development	263	(1)
Cleavage	264	(2)
The Midblastula Transition	265	(1)
Gastrulation	266	(3)
The Origins of Anterior-Posterior Polarity	269	(1)
The Maternal Effect Genes	270	(8)
Embryological Evidence of Polarity Regulation by Oocyte Cytoplasm	270	(1)
The Molecular Model: Protein Gradients in the Early Embryo	270	(1)
Evidence that the Bicoid Gradient Constitutes the Anterior Organizing Center	271	(5)
The Posterior Organizing Center: Localizing and Activating Nanos	276	(1)
The Terminal Gene Group	277	(1)
The Segmentation Genes	278	(7)
The Gap Genes	279	(1)
The Pair-Rule Genes	280	(2)
The Segment Polarity Genes	282	(3)
The Homeotic Selector Genes	285	(5)
Patterns of Homeotic Gene Expression	285	(1)
Initiating the Patterns of Homeotic Gene Expression	286	(1)
Maintaining the Patterns of Homeotic Gene Expression	287	(1)
Realisator Genes	287	(2)
The Homeodomain Proteins	289	(1)
The Generation of Dorsal-Ventral Polarity	290	(1)
The Morphogenetic Agent for Dorsal-Ventral Polarity	290	(1)
The Translocation of Dorsal Protein	290	(6)
The Signal Cascade	291	(3)
Establishing the Dorsal Protein Gradient	294	(2)
Axes and Organ Primordia: The Cartesian Coordinate Model	296	(1)
Coda	297	(1)
Snapshot Summary	297	(1)
Literature Cited	298	(5)
Early development and axis formation in amphibians	303	(36)
Early Amphibian Development	303	(1)
Cleavage in Amphibians	303	(2)
Amphibian Gastrulation	305	(9)
The Fate Map of Xenopus	305	(1)
Cell Movements during Amphibian Gastrulation	306	(2)
The Midblastula Transition: Preparing for Gastrulation	308	(1)
Positioning the Blastopore	308	(1)
Invagination and Involution	309	(2)
The Convergent Extension of the Dorsal Mesoderm	311	(1)
Migration of the Involuting Mesoderm	312	(1)
Epiboly of the Ectoderm	312	(1)
Fibronectin and the Pathways for Mesodermal Migration	313	(1)
Axis Formation In Amphibians: The Phenomenon of the Organizer	314	(1)
The Progressive Determination of the Amphibian Axes	314	(3)
Hans Spemann and Hilde Mangold: Primary Embryonic Induction	317	(1)
The Mechanisms of Axis Formation in Amphibians	318	(4)
The Origin of the Nieukoop Center	319	(1)
The Molecular Biology of the Nieuwkoop Center	319	(3)
The Functions of the Organizer	322	(9)
The Diffusible Proteins of the Organizer I: The BMP Inhibitors	324	(3)
BMP4 and Geoffroy's Lobster	327	(1)
The Diffusible Proteins of the Organizer II: The Wnt Inhibitors	328	(1)
Conversion of the Ectoderm into Neural Plate Cells	329	(1)
Competence, Bias, and Neurulation	330	(1)
The Regional Specificity of Induction	331	(3)
The Determination of Regional Differences	331	(1)
Molecular Correlates of Neural Caudalization	331	(2)
Specifying the Left-Right Axis	333	(1)
Snapshot Summary	334	(1)
Literature Cited	335	(4)
The early development of vertebrates: Fish, birds, and mammals	339	(40)
Early Development in Fish	339	(1)
Cleavage in Fish Eggs	339	(2)
Gastrulation in Fish Embryos	341	(2)
The Formation of Germ Layers	341	(2)
Axis Formation in Fish Embryos	343	(2)
Dorsal-Ventral Axis Formation: The Embryonic Shield	343	(2)
Anterior-Posterior Axis Formation: Two Signaling Centers	345	(1)
Left-Right Axis Formation	345	(1)
Early Development In Birds	345	(1)
Cleavage in Bird Eggs	345	(2)
Gastrulation of the Avian Embryo	347	(3)
The Hypoblast	347	(1)
The Primitive Streak	348	(2)
Epiboly of the Ectoderm	350	(1)
Axis Formation in the Chick Embryo	350	(4)
The Role of pH in Forming the Dorsal-Ventral Axis	350	(1)
The Role of Gravity in Forming the Anterior-Posterior Axis	351	(2)
Left-Right Axis Formation	353	(1)
Early Mammalian Development	354	(1)
Cleavage in Mammals	354	(3)
The Unique Nature of Mammalian Cleavage	354	(2)
Compaction	356	(1)
Escape from the Zona Pellucida	357	(1)
Gastrulation in Mammals	358	(6)
Modifications for Development within Another Organism	358	(3)
Formation of Extraembryonic Membranes	361	(1)
Twins	362	(2)
Mammalian Anterior-Posterior Axis Formation	364	(5)
Two Signaling Centers	364	(1)
Patterning the Anterior-Posterior Axis: The Hox Code Hypothesis	365	(2)
Expression of Hox Genes along the Dorsal Axis	367	(1)
Experimental Analysis of the Hox Code	367	(2)
The Dorsal-Ventral and Left-Right Axes in Mammals	369	(3)
The Dorsal-Ventral Axis	369	(1)
The Left-Right Axis	370	(2)
Snapshot Summary	372	(1)
Literature Cited	373	(6)
part 3 Later embryonic development
The central nervous system and the epidermis	379	(32)
Formation of the Neural Tube	379	(7)
Primary Neurulation	380	(5)
Secondary Neurulation	385	(1)
Differentiation of the Neural Tube	386
The Anterior-Posterior Axis	387	(1)
The Dorsal-Ventral Axis	388
Tissue Architecture of the Central Nervous System	378	(17)
Spinal Cord and Medulla Organization	390	(1)
Cerebellar Organization	390	(2)
Cerebral Organization	392	(2)
Adult Neural Stem Cells	394	(1)
Neuronal Types	395	(4)
Homologous Specification of Neural Tissue between Vertebrates and Arthropods	398	(1)
Development of the Vertebrate Eye	399	(4)
The Dynamics of Optic Development	400	(1)
Neural Retina Differentiation	401	(1)
Lens and Cornea Differentiation	401	(2)
The Epidermis and the Origin of Cutaneous Structures	403	(3)
The Origin of Epidermal Cells	403	(1)
Cutaneous Appendages	404	(1)
Patterning of Cutaneous Appendages	404	(2)
Snapshot Summary	406	(1)
Literature Cited	407	(4)
Neural crest cells and axonal specificity	411	(36)
The Neural Crest	411	(2)
The Trunk Neural Crest	413	(4)
Migration Pathways of Trunk Neural Crest Cells	413	(1)
The Mechanisms of Trunk Neural Crest Migration	414	(1)
Trunk Neural Crest Cell Differentiation	415	(2)
The Cranial Neural Crest	417	(5)
Tooth Development	420	(2)
The Cardiac Neural Crest	422	(1)
Neuronal Specification and Axonal Specificity	422	(1)
The Generation of Neuronal Diversity	423	(2)
Pattern Generation in the Nervous System	425	(14)
Cell Adhesion and Contact Guidance: Attractive and Permissive Molecules	426	(1)
Guidance by Axon-Specific Migratory Cues: The Labeled Pathways Hypothesis	426	(1)
Contact Guidance by Specific Growth Cone Repulsion	427	(1)
Guidance By Diffusible Molecules	428	(3)
Target Selection	431	(2)
Address Selection: Activity-Dependent Development	433	(1)
Differential Survival after Innervation: Neurotrophic Factors	434	(1)
Paths to Glory: Migration of the Retinal Ganglion Axons	435	(3)
Fetal Neurons in Adult Hosts	438	(1)
The Development of Behaviors: Constancy and Plasticity	439	(1)
Snapshot Summary	439	(1)
Literature Cited	440	(7)
Paraxial and intermediate mesoderm	447	(24)
Paraxial Mesoderm: The Somites and Their Derivatives	447	(6)
The Initiation of Somite Formation	448	(3)
Specification and Commitment of Somitic Cell Types	451	(1)
Determining Somitic Cell Fates	452	(1)
Myogenesis: The Development of Muscle	453	(1)
Specification and Differentiation by the Myogenic bHLH Proteins	453	(1)
Muscle Cell Fusion	453	(1)
Osteogenesis: The Development of Bones	454	(6)
Intramembranous Ossification	455	(1)
Endochondral Ossification	456	(2)
Control of Cartilage Maturation at the Growth Plate	458	(1)
Osteoclasts	459	(1)
Intermediate Mesoderm	460	(6)
Progression of Kidney Types	460	(1)
Reciprocal Interaction of Kidney Tissues	461	(1)
The Mechanisms of Reciprocal Induction	461	(5)
Snapshot Summary	466	(1)
Literature Cited	467	(4)
Lateral plate mesoderm and endoderm	471	(32)
Lateral Plate Mesoderm	471	(1)
The Heart	471	(9)
Specification of Heart Tissue and Fusion of Heart Rudiments	472	(3)
Looping and Formation of Heart Chambers	475	(2)
Redirecting Blood Flow in the Newborn Mammal	477	(3)
Formation of Blood Vessels	480	(5)
Constraints on How Blood Vessels May Be Constructed	480	(1)
Vasculogenesis: Formation of Blood Vessels from Blood Islands	481	(2)
Angiogenesis: Sprouting of Blood Vessels and Remodeling of Vascular Beds	483	(2)
The Development of Blood Cells	485	(5)
The Stem Cell Concept	485	(1)
Pluripotential Stem Cells and Hematopoietic Microenvironments	485	(3)
Sites of Hematopoiesis	488	(2)
Endoderm	490	(1)
The Pharynx	490	(1)
The Digestive Tube and Its Derivatives	491	(4)
Specification of the Gut Tissue	492	(1)
Liver, Pancreas, and Gallbladder	493	(1)
The Specification of Liver and Pancreas	494	(1)
The Respiratory Tube	495	(1)
The Extraembryonic Membranes	495	(2)
The Amnion and Chorion	496	(1)
The Allantois and Yolk Sac	497	(1)
Snapshot Summary	497	(1)
Literature Cited	498	(5)
Development of the tetrapod limb	503	(20)
Formation of the Limb Bud	504	(4)
Specification of the Limb Fields: Hox Genes and Retinoic Acid	504	(1)
Induction of the Early Limb Bud: Fibroblast Growth Factors	504	(1)
Specification of Forelimb or Hindlimb: Tbx4 and Tbx5	505	(1)
Induction of the Apical Ectodermal Ridge	506	(2)
Generating the Proximal-Distal Axis of the Limb	508	(5)
The Apical Ectodermal Ridge: The Ectodermal Component	508	(1)
The Progress Zone: The Mesodermal Component	509	(2)
Hox Genes and the Specification of the Proximal-Distal Axis	511	(2)
Hox Genes and the Evolution of the Tetrapod Limb	513	(1)
Specification of the Anterior-Posterior Limb Axis	513	(2)
The Zone of Polarizing Activity	513	(1)
Sonic Hedgehog Defines the ZPA	514	(1)
The Generation of the Dorsal-Ventral Axis	515	(1)
Coordination among the Three Axes	516	(1)
Cell Death and the Formation of Digits and Joints	517	(2)
Sculpting the Autopod	517	(1)
Forming the Joints	517	(2)
Snapshot Summary	519	(1)
Literature Cited	519	(4)
Sex determination	523	(24)
Chromosomal Sex Determination in Mammals	524	(12)
Primary and Secondary Sex Determination	524	(1)
The Developing Gonads	525	(2)
The Mechanisms of Mammalian Primary Sex Determination	527	(4)
Secondary Sex Determination: Hormonal Regulation of the Sexual Phenotype	531	(3)
Sex Determination and Behaviors	534	(2)
Chromosomal Sex Determination in Drosophila	536	(4)
The Sexual Development Pathway	536	(1)
The Sex-lethal Gene as the Pivot for Sex Determination	537	(2)
The Transformer Genes	539	(1)
Doublesex: The Switch Gene of Sex Determination	540	(1)
Environmental Sex Determination	540	(2)
Temperature-Dependent Sex Determination in Reptiles	540	(1)
Location-Dependent Sex Determination in Bonellia and Crepidula	541	(1)
Snapshot Summary	542	(1)
Literature Cited	543	(4)
Metamorphosis, regeneration, and aging	547	(38)
Metamorphosis: The Hormonal Reactivation of Development	547	(1)
Amphibian Metamorphosis	548	(8)
Morphological Changes Associated with Metamorphosis	548	(1)
Biochemical Changes Associated with Metamorphosis	549	(1)
Hormonal Control of Amphibian Metamorphosis	549	(3)
Raising Tadpoles	552	(1)
Molecular Responses to Thyroid Hormones during Metamorphosis	552	(2)
Heterochrony	554	(2)
Metamorphosis In Insects	556	(9)
Types of Insect Metamorphosis	556	(1)
Eversion and Differentiation of the Imaginal Discs	557	(2)
Determination of the Wing Imaginal Discs	559	(3)
Hormonal Control of Insect Metamorphosis	562	(1)
The Molecular Biology of Hydroxyecdysone Activity	563	(2)
Regeneration	565	(1)
Epimorphic Regeneration of Salamander Limbs	566	(4)
Formation of the Apical Ectodermal Cap and Regeneration Blastema	566	(2)
Proliferation of the Blastema Cells: The Requirement for Nerves	568	(1)
Pattern Formation In the Regeneration Blastema	568	(2)
Compensatory Regeneration in the Mammalian Liver	570	(1)
Morphallactic Regeneration in Hydras	570	(4)
Medical Advances in Regeneration	573	(1)
Aging: The Biology of Senescence	574	(1)
Maximum Life Span and Life Expectancy	574	(1)
Causes of Aging	575	(2)
Oxidative Damage	575	(1)
General Wear-and-Tear and Genetic Instability	576	(1)
Snapshot Summary	577	(1)
Literature Cited	578	(7)
The saga of the germ line	585	(36)
Germ Plasm and the Determination of the Primordial Germ Cells	585	(4)
Germ Cell Determination in Nematodes	586	(1)
Germ Cell Determination in Insects	587	(1)
Germ Cell Determination in Amphibians	588	(1)
Germ Cell Migration	589	(6)
Germ Cell Migration in Amphibians	589	(1)
Germ Cell Migration in Mammals	590	(2)
EG Cells, ES Cells, and Teratocarcinomas	592	(1)
Germ Cell Migration in Birds and Reptiles	593	(1)
Germ Cell Migration in Drosophila	593	(2)
Meiosis	595	(4)
Big Decisions: Mitosis or Meiosis? Sperm or Egg?	597	(2)
Spermatogenesis	599	(3)
Oogenesis	602	(11)
Oogenic Meiosis	602	(1)
Maturation of the Oocyte in Amphibians	603	(2)
Completion of Amphibian Meiosis: Progesterone and Fertilization	605	(1)
Gene Transcription in Oocytes	606	(2)
Meroistic Oogenesis in Insects	608	(2)
Oogenesis in Mammals	610	(3)
Snapshot Summary	613	(1)
Literature Cited	614	(7)
part 4 Ramifications of developmental biology
An overview of plant development	621	(28)
Plant Life Cycles	622	(2)
Gamete Production in Angiosperms	624	(3)
Pollen	624	(2)
The Ovary	626	(1)
Pollination	627	(2)
Fertilization	629	(1)
Embryonic Development	629	(4)
Experimental Studies	629	(1)
Embryogenesis	630	(3)
Dormancy	633	(1)
Germination	634	(1)
Vegetative Growth	635	(4)
Meristems	635	(1)
Root Development	636	(1)
Shoot Development	637	(1)
Leaf Development	638	(1)
The Vegetative-to-Reproductive Transition	639	(6)
Senescence	645	(1)
Snapshot Summary	645	(1)
Literature Cited	646	(3)
Environmental regulation of animal development	649	(30)
Environmental Regulation of Normal Development	649	(1)
Environmental Cues and Normal Development	649	(3)
Larval Settlement	649	(1)
Blood Meals	650	(1)
Developmental Symbiosis	650	(2)
Predictable Environmental Differences as Cues for Development	652	(1)
Seasonality and Sex in Aphids	652	(1)
Diapause	653	(1)
Gravity and Pressure	653	(1)
Phenotypic Plasticity: Polyphenism and Reaction Norms	653	(5)
Seasonal Polyphenism in Butterflies	655	(1)
Nutritional Polyphenism	655	(1)
Environment-Dependent Sex Determination	656	(1)
Polyphenisms for Alternative Conditions	657	(1)
Predator-Induced Defenses	658	(2)
Mammalian Immunity as a Predator-Induced Response	660	(2)
Genetic Assimilation	661	(1)
Learning: An Environmentally Adaptive Nervous System	662	(2)
Environmental Disruption of Normal Development	664	(1)
Teratogenic Agents	665	(8)
Retinoic Acid as a Teratogen	666	(1)
Alcohol as a Teratogen	667	(1)
Other Teratogenic Agents	668	(1)
Endocrine Disruptors	669	(4)
Genetic-Environmental Interactions	673	(1)
Coda	673	(1)
Snapshot Summary	674	(1)
Literature Cited	674	(5)
Developmental mechanisms of evolutionary change	679	(31)
``Unity of Type'' and ``Conditions of Existence''	679	(4)
Charles Darwin's Synthesis	679	(1)
E. B. Wilson and F. R. Lillie	680	(1)
``Life's Splendid Drama''	680	(2)
The Search for the Urbilaterian Ancestor	682	(1)
Hox Genes: Descent with Modification	683	(7)
Changes in Hox-Responsive Elements of Downstream Genes	684	(1)
Changes in Hox Gene Transcription Patterns within a Body Portion	684	(2)
Changes in Hox Gene Expression between Body Segments	686	(2)
Changes in Hox Gene Number	688	(1)
Assessing Homologies through Regulatory Gene Expression Patterns	689	(1)
Homologous Pathways of Development	690	(3)
Instructions for Forming the Central Nervous System	690	(2)
Limb Formation	692	(1)
Modularity: The Prerequisite for Evolution through Development	693	(3)
Dissociation: Heterochrony and Allometry	694	(1)
Duplication and Divergence	695	(1)
Co-option	696	(1)
Developmental Correlation	697	(2)
Correlated Progression	697	(1)
Coevolution of Ligand and Receptor	698	(1)
Developmental Constraints	699	(3)
Physical Constraints	699	(1)
Morphogenetic Constraints	700	(1)
Phyletic Constraints	700	(2)
Canalization and the Release of Developmental Constraints	702	(1)
A New Evolutionary Synthesis	702	(3)
Snapshot Summary	705	(1)
Literature Cited	706	(4)
Appendix I: A Partial List of Genes Active in Human Development	710	(2)
Sources for Chapter-Opening Quotations	712	(1)
Author Index	713	(12)
Subject Index	725