Diagnostic Ultrasound Imaging: Inside Out

by Szabo

• ISBN13: 9780126801453
• ISBN10: 0126801452
• Format: Hardcover
• Copyright: 2004-09-07
• Publisher: Elsevier Science

Summary

Suitable as a graduate level text for engineering or science students or as a reference for the practicing engineer, scientist or physician engaged in ultrasound research or development, this book will provide a well rounded and comprehensive overview of the major topics of interest in medical ultrasound.

Author Biography

Thomas L. Szabo is a Research Professor at Boston University and has participated in diagnostic ultrasound research and development at Hewlett Packard / Agilent Technologies for nearly twenty years

Table of Contents

Introduction	1	(28)
Introduction	1	(3)
Early Beginnings	2	(1)
Sonar	3	(1)
Echo Ranging of the Body	4	(2)
Ultrasound Portrait Photographers	6	(6)
Ultrasound Cinematographers	12	(4)
Modern Ultrasound Imaging Developments	16	(3)
Enabling Technologies for Ultrasound Imaging	19	(1)
Ultrasound Imaging Safety	20	(2)
Ultrasound and Other Diagnostic Imaging Modalities	22	(4)
Imaging Modalities Compared	22	(1)
Ultrasound	22	(2)
X-rays	24	(1)
Computed Tomography Imaging	24	(1)
Magnetic Resonance Imaging	25	(1)
Conclusion	26	(3)
Bibliography	26	(1)
References	27	(2)
Overview	29	(18)
Introduction	29	(1)
Fourier Transform	30	(4)
Introduction to the Fourier Transform	30	(1)
Fourier Transform Relationships	31	(3)
Building Blocks	34	(9)
Time and Frequency Building Blocks	34	(2)
Space Wave Number Building Block	36	(7)
Central Diagram	43	(4)
References	45	(2)
Acoustic Wave Propagation	47	(24)
Introduction to Waves	47	(1)
Plane Waves in Liquids and Solids	48	(11)
Introduction	48	(1)
Wave Equations for Fluids	49	(3)
One-Dimensional Wave Hitting a Boundary	52	(1)
ABCD Matrices	53	(4)
Oblique Waves at a Liquid-Liquid Boundary	57	(2)
Elastic Waves in Solids	59	(11)
Types of Waves	59	(5)
Equivalent Networks for Waves	64	(2)
Waves at a Fluid-Solid Boundary	66	(4)
Conclusion	70	(1)
Bibliography	70	(1)
References	70	(1)
Attenuation	71	(26)
Losses in Tissues	72	(3)
Losses in Exponential Terms and in Decibels	72	(1)
Tissue Data	73	(2)
Losses in Both Frequency and Time Domains	75	(2)
The Material Transfer Function	75	(1)
The Material Impulse Response Function	76	(1)
Tissue Models	77	(6)
Introduction	77	(1)
Thermoviscous Model	78	(1)
Multiple Relaxation Model	79	(1)
The Time Causal Model	79	(4)
Pulses in Lossy Media	83	(7)
Scaling of the Material Impulse Response Function	83	(3)
Pulse Propagation: Interactive Effects in Time and Frequency	86	(2)
Pulse Echo Propagation	88	(2)
Penetration and Time Gain Compensation	90	(1)
Hooke's Law for Viscoelastic Media	90	(2)
Wave Equations for Tissues	92	(5)
Voigt Model Wave Equation	92	(1)
Multiple Relaxation Model Wave Equation	93	(1)
Time Causal Model Wave Equations	93	(2)
References	95	(2)
Transducers	97	(40)
Introduction to Transducers	98	(4)
Transducer Basics	98	(1)
Transducer Electrical Impedance	99	(2)
Summary	101	(1)
Resonant Modes of Transducers	102	(4)
Resonant Crystal Geometries	102	(2)
Determination of Electroacoustic Coupling Constants	104	(1)
Array Construction	105	(1)
Equivalent Circuit Transducer Model	106	(5)
KLM Equivalent Circuit Model	106	(2)
Organization of Overall Transducer Model	108	(1)
Transducer at Resonance	109	(2)
Transducer Design Considerations	111	(9)
Introduction	111	(1)
Insertion Loss and Transducer Loss	111	(2)
Electrical Loss	113	(1)
Acoustical Loss	114	(2)
Matching Layers	116	(1)
Design Examples	117	(3)
Transducer Pulses	120	(2)
Equations for Piezoelectric Media	122	(1)
Piezoelectric Materials	123	(4)
Introduction	123	(1)
Normal Polycrystalline Piezoelectric Ceramics	124	(1)
Relaxor Piezoelectric Ceramics	124	(2)
Single Crystal Ferroelectrics	126	(1)
Piezoelectric Organic Polymers	126	(1)
Domain Engineered Ferroelectric Single Crystals	126	(1)
Composite Materials	126	(1)
Comparison of Piezoelectric Materials	127	(1)
Transducer Advanced Topics	128	(9)
Bibliography	131	(1)
References	132	(5)
Beamforming	137	(34)
What is Diffraction?	137	(3)
Fresnel Approximation of Spatial Diffraction Integral	140	(2)
Rectangular Aperture	142	(6)
Apodization	148	(1)
Circular Apertures	149	(5)
Near and Far Fields for Circular Apertures	149	(4)
Universal Relations for Circular Apertures	153	(1)
Focusing	154	(9)
Derivation of Focusing Relations	154	(4)
Zones for Focusing Transducers	158	(5)
Angular Spectrum of Waves	163	(1)
Diffraction Loss	164	(4)
Limited Diffraction Beams	168	(3)
Bibliography	168	(1)
References	168	(3)
Array Beamforming	171	(42)
Why Arrays?	172	(1)
Diffraction in the Time Domain	172	(1)
Circular Radiators in the Time Domain	173	(4)
Arrays	177	(13)
The Array Element	178	(3)
Pulsed Excitation of an Element	181	(1)
Array Sampling and Grating Lobes	182	(3)
Element Factors	185	(1)
Beam Steering	186	(2)
Focusing and Steering	188	(2)
Pulse-Echo Beamforming	190	(6)
Introduction	190	(2)
Beam-Shaping	192	(2)
Pulse-Echo Focusing	194	(2)
Two-Dimensional Arrays	196	(3)
Baffled	199	(4)
General Approaches	203	(1)
Nonideal Array Performance	203	(10)
Quantization and Defective Elements	203	(1)
Sparse and Thinned Arrays	204	(2)
1.5-Dimensional Arrays	206	(1)
Diffraction in Absorbing Media	207	(1)
Body Effects	208	(1)
Bibliography	208	(1)
References	209	(4)
Wave Scattering and Imaging	213	(30)
Introduction	213	(3)
Scattering of Objects	216	(6)
Specular Scattering	216	(1)
Diffusive Scattering	217	(2)
Diffractive Scattering	219	(2)
Scattering Summary	221	(1)
Role of Transducer Diffraction and Focusing	222	(3)
Time Domain Born Approximation Including Diffraction	223	(2)
Role of Imaging	225	(18)
Imaging Process	225	(2)
A Different Attitude	227	(3)
Speckle	230	(4)
Contrast	234	(2)
van Cittert-Zernike Theorem	236	(4)
Speckle Reduction	240	(1)
Bibliography	240	(1)
References	241	(2)
Scattering from Tissue and Tissue Characterization	243	(54)
Introduction	244	(1)
Scattering from Tissues	244	(4)
Properties of and Propagation in Heterogeneous Tissue	248	(6)
Properties of Heterogeneous Tissue	248	(2)
Propagation in Heterogeneous Tissue	250	(4)
Array Processing of Scattered Pulse-Echo Signals	254	(3)
Tissue Characterization Methods	257	(7)
Introduction	257	(1)
Fundamentals	258	(1)
Backscattering Definitions	259	(1)
The Classic Formulation	260	(1)
Extensions of the Original Backscatter Methodology	261	(1)
Integrated Backscatter	262	(1)
Spectral Features	263	(1)
Applications of Tissue Characterization	264	(13)
Radiology and Ophthalmic Applications	264	(2)
Cardiac Applications	266	(3)
High-Frequency Applications	269	(8)
Texture Analysis and Image Analysis	277	(1)
Elastography	277	(6)
Aberration Correction	283	(3)
Wave Equations for Tissue	286	(11)
Bibliography	288	(1)
References	288	(9)
Imaging Systems and Applications	297	(40)
Introduction	298	(1)
Trends in Imaging Systems	299	(1)
Major Controls	300	(1)
Block Diagram	301	(2)
Major Modes	303	(3)
Clinical Applications	306	(1)
Transducers and Image Formats	307	(6)
Image Formats and Transducer Types	307	(3)
Transducer Implementations	310	(3)
Multidimensional Arrays	313	(1)
Front End	313	(3)
Transmitters	313	(1)
Receivers	314	(2)
Scanner	316	(6)
Beamformers	316	(1)
Signal Processors	316	(6)
Back End	322	(3)
Scan Conversion and Display	322	(1)
Computation and Software	323	(2)
Advanced Signal Processing	325	(7)
High-End Imaging Systems	325	(1)
Attenuation and Diffraction Amplitude Compensation	325	(1)
Frequency Compounding	326	(1)
Spatial Compounding	327	(2)
Real-Time Border Detection	329	(1)
Three- and Four-Dimensional Imaging	330	(2)
Alternate Imaging System Architectures	332	(5)
Bibliography	334	(1)
References	334	(3)
Doppler Modes	337	(44)
Introduction	338	(1)
The Doppler Effect	338	(4)
Scattering from Flowing Blood in Vessels	342	(4)
Continuous Wave Doppler	346	(7)
Pulsed Wave Doppler	353	(12)
Introduction	353	(2)
Range-Gated Pulsed Doppler Processing	355	(4)
Quadrature Sampling	359	(3)
Final Filtering and Display	362	(1)
Pulsed Doppler Examples	363	(2)
Comparison of Pulsed and Continuous Wave Doppler	365	(1)
Ultrasound Color Flow Imaging	366	(8)
Introduction	366	(1)
Phase-Based Mean Frequency Estimators	366	(3)
Time Domain-Based Estimators	369	(1)
Implementations of Color Flow Imaging	370	(1)
Power Doppler and Other Variants of Color Flow Imaging	371	(2)
Future and Current Developments	373	(1)
Non-Doppler Visualization of Blood Flow	374	(2)
Conclusion	376	(5)
Bibliography	377	(1)
References	377	(4)
Nonlinear Acoustics and Imaging	381	(48)
Introduction	382	(4)
What is Nonlinear Propagation?	386	(4)
Propagation in a Nonlinear Medium with Losses	390	(2)
Propagation of Beams in Nonlinear Media	392	(8)
Harmonic Imaging	400	(12)
Introduction	400	(2)
Resolution	402	(2)
Focusing	404	(1)
Natural Apodization	405	(1)
Body Wall Effects	406	(4)
Absorption Effects	410	(1)
Harmonic Pulse Echo	411	(1)
Harmonic Signal Processing	412	(3)
Other Nonlinear Effects	415	(3)
Nonlinear Wave Equations and Simulation Models	418	(3)
Summary	421	(8)
Bibliography	421	(1)
References	422	(7)
Ultrasonic Exposimetry and Acoustic Measurements	429	(26)
Introduction to Measurements	430	(1)
Materials Characterization	430	(2)
Transducer Materials	430	(1)
Tissue Measurements	431	(1)
Measurement Considerations	432	(1)
Transducers	432	(6)
Impedance	432	(1)
Pulse-Echo Testing	433	(2)
Beamplots	435	(3)
Acoustic Output Measurements	438	(11)
Introduction	438	(1)
Hydrophone Characteristics	439	(4)
Hydrophone Measurements of Absolute Pressure and Derived Parameters	443	(4)
Force Balance Measurements of Absolute Power	447	(1)
Measurements of Temperature Rise	447	(2)
Performance Measurements	449	(1)
Thought Experiments	450	(5)
Bibliography	450	(1)
References	451	(4)
Ultrasound Contrast Agents	455	(34)
Introduction	455	(1)
Microbubble as Linear Resonator	456	(2)
Microbubble as Nonlinear Resonator	458	(1)
Cavitation and Bubble Destruction	459	(4)
Rectified Diffusion	459	(2)
Cavitation	461	(1)
Mechanical Index	462	(1)
Ultrasound Contrast Agents	463	(10)
Basic Physical Characteristics of Ultrasound Contrast Agents	463	(2)
Acoustic Excitation of Ultrasound Contrast Agents	465	(2)
Mechanisms of Destruction of Ultrasound Contrast Agents	467	(4)
Secondary Physical Characteristics of Ultrasound Contrast Agents	471	(2)
Imaging with Ultrasound Contrast Agents	473	(6)
Therapeutic Ultrasound Contrast Agents: Smart Bubbles	479	(3)
Equations of Motion for Contrast Agents	482	(1)
Conclusion	483	(6)
Bibliography	484	(1)
References	485	(4)
Ultrasound-Induced Bioeffects	489	(28)
Introduction	490	(1)
Ultrasound-Induced Bioeffects: Observation to Regulation	491	(2)
Thermal Effects	493	(5)
Introduction	493	(1)
Heat Conduction Effects	494	(1)
Absorption Effects	495	(1)
Perfusion Effects	496	(1)
Combined Contributions to Temperature Elevation	497	(1)
Biologically Sensitive Sites	497	(1)
Mechanical Effects	498	(1)
The Output Display Standard	498	(4)
Origins of the Output Display Standard	498	(1)
Thermal Indices	499	(1)
Mechanical Index	500	(1)
The ODS Revisited	501	(1)
Comparison of Medical Ultrasound Modalities	502	(5)
Introduction	502	(1)
Ultrasound Therapy	502	(1)
Hyperthermia	503	(1)
High-Intensity Focused Ultrasound	504	(1)
Lithotripsy	505	(1)
Diagnostic Ultrasound Imaging	505	(2)
Primary and Secondary Ultrasound-Induced Bioeffects	507	(1)
Equations for Predicting Temperature Rise	508	(2)
Conclusions	510	(7)
Bibliography	512	(1)
References	512	(5)
APPENDIX A	517	(18)
A.1 Introduction	517	(1)
A.2 The Fourier Transform	518	(17)
A.2.1 Definitions	518	(1)
A.2.2 Fourier Transform Pairs	519	(2)
A.2.3 Fundamental Fourier Transform Operations	521	(2)
A.2.4 The Sampled Waveform	523	(3)
A.2.5 The Digital Fourier Transform	526	(1)
A.2.6 Calculating a Fourier Transform with an FFT	527	(5)
A.2.7 Calculating an Inverse Fourier Transform and a Hilbert Transform with an FFT	532	(1)
A.2.8 Calculating a Two-Dimensional Fourier Transform with FFTs	533	(1)
Bibliography	534	(1)
References	534	(1)
APPENDIX B	535	(2)
References	535	(2)
APPENDIX C	537	(4)
of One-Dimensional KLM Model Based on ABCD Matrices	537	(4)
References	540	(1)
APPENDIX D	541	(2)
Index	543