Diffraction Gratings and Applications

by Loewen,Erwin G.

• ISBN13: 9780824799236
• ISBN10: 0824799232
• Edition: 1st
• Format: Hardcover
• Copyright: 1997-05-08
• Publisher: CRC Press

Summary

"Offers and up-to-date assessment of the entire field of diffraction gratings, including history, physics, manufacture, testing, and instrument design. Furnishes--for the first time in a single-source reference--a thorough review of efficiency behavior, examining echelles as well as concave, binary, transmission, fiber, and waveguide gratings."

Table of Contents

From the Series Editor	v	(2)
Brian J. Thompson
Preface	vii
Chapter 1. A Brief History of Spectral Analysis	1	(24)
1.1 Work Before the Year 1800	1	(1)
1.2 The Early Work in Gratings	2	(1)
1.3 The Beginnings of Spectral Analysis	3	(2)
1.4 Nobert	5	(1)
1.5 Kirchhoff and Bunsen	6	(1)
1.6 Georg Quincke	7	(1)
1.7 Progress in Solar Spectroscopy	8	(1)
1.8 The Era of Rowland	9	(1)
1.9 Origin of Spectral Lines	10	(1)
1.10 The Vacuum UV	10	(1)
1.11 Some Special Effects	11	(1)
1.12 Some Historical Aspects of Ruled Gratings	12	(1)
1.12.1 Blazing and Efficiency	12	(1)
1.12.2 Defects of Grating Ruling	13	(1)
1.13 Spectrographs and Spectrophotometers	13	(6)
1.13.1 Infrared Spectrometry	14	(1)
1.13.2 Raman Spectrometry	15	(1)
1.13.3 Atomic Absorption Spectrometry	16	(1)
1.13.4 Fluorescence Spectrometry	17	(1)
1.13.5 Colorimetry	18	(1)
1.14 Transformation of the Field to the Present Day	19	(1)
References	19	(6)
Chapter 2. Fundamental Properties of Gratings	25	(32)
2.1 The Grating Equation	25	(3)
2.2 Propagating and Evanescent Orders	28	(2)
2.3 Dispersion	30	(3)
2.4 Free Spectral Range	33	(1)
2.5 Passing-Off of Orders	33	(1)
2.6 Guided Waves	34	(1)
2.7 Diffraction Efficiency	35	(7)
2.7.1 Definition	35	(1)
2.7.2 Classical Model of Grating Efficiency	36	(2)
2.7.3 Reciprocity Theorem and Symmetry with Respect to Littrow Mount	38	(1)
2.7.4 Perfect Blazing - Does It Really Exist?	39	(3)
2.8 Resolution	42	(2)
2.9 Mountings	44	(3)
2.10 Some Electromagnetic Characteristics	47	(1)
2.10.1 Energy Flow (Poynting) Vector	47	(1)
2.10.2 Electromagnetic Energy Density	48	(1)
2.11 Two Simple Methods of Determining the Grating Frequency	48	(1)
2.12 Pulse Compression by Diffraction Gratings	49	(4)
References	53	(1)
Additional Reading	53	(4)
Chapter 3: The Types of Diffraction Gratings	57	(14)
3.1 Introduction	57	(1)
3.2 Amplitude and Phase Gratings	58	(1)
3.3 Phase and Relief Gratings	59	(1)
3.4 Reflection and Transmission Gratings	59	(1)
3.5 Symmetrical and Blazed Gratings	60	(1)
3.6 Ruled, Holographic and Lithographic Gratings	61	(1)
3.7 Plane and Concave Gratings	62	(1)
3.8 Bragg Type and Raman-Nath Type Gratings	62	(1)
3.9 Waveguide Gratings	63	(1)
3.10 Fiber Gratings	64	(2)
3.11 Binary Gratings	66	(1)
3.12 Photonic Crystals	66	(1)
3.13 Gratings for Special Purposes	67	(2)
3.13.1 Filter Gratings	67	(1)
3.13.2 Gratings for Electron Microscope and Scanning Microscope Calibration	67	(1)
3.13.3 Electron Interaction Gratings	67	(1)
3.13.4 Rocket and Satellite Spectroscopy	68	(1)
3.13.5 Metrology	68	(1)
3.13.6 Synchrotron Monochromators	68	(1)
3.13.7 X-Ray Gratings	68	(1)
3.13.8 Chemical/Biological Monitoring	68	(1)
3.14 "Good" and "Bad" Gratings	69	(1)
References	69	(2)
Chapter 4: Efficiency Behavior of Plane Reflection Gratings	71	(78)
4.1 Introduction	71	(3)
4.2 General Rules	74	(7)
4.2.1 Reflection Coatings	74	(1)
4.2.2 Scalar Behavior of Reflection Gratings	75	(5)
4.2.3 Gratings Supporting Only Two Diffraction Orders: The Equivalence Rule	80	(1)
4.3 Absolute Efficiencies of 1200 gr/mm Aluminum Echelettes	81	(13)
4.3.1 Discussion of Efficiency Behavior of 1200 gr/mm Echelettes	81	(7)
4.3.2 Reflection Efficiencies of 1200 gr/mm Echelettes in Orders 2, 3 and 4	88	(1)
4.3.3 Effect of A.D. on Peak Efficiency Values and Location in Orders Two to Four of 1200 gr/mm Echelettes	88	(6)
4.4 Reflection Efficiencies of Echelettes at High Groove Frequencies and the Roles of Aluminum vs. Gold and Silver Coatings	94	(12)
4.5 Effect of Groove Apex Angle on Echelette Efficiency	106	(1)
4.6 Plane Sinusoidal Reflection Grating Behavior	106	(19)
4.6.1 Absolute Efficiency of Plane 1200 gr/mm Aluminum Sinusoidal Gratings	108	(10)
4.6.2 Absolute Efficiency of 1200 gr/mm Sinusoidal Reflection Gratings in Orders 2 to 4	118	(1)
4.6.3 Absolute Efficiency of Aluminum Sinusoidal Gratings at Higher Groove Frequencies (1800, 2400, 3600 gr/mm)	118	(7)
4.6.4 Absolute Efficiency of Higher Groove Frequency Sinusoidal Gratings with Silver with Silver Overcoating	125	(1)
4.6.5 Absolute Efficiency of Higher Groove Frequency Sinusoidal Gratings with Gold Overcoating	125	(1)
4.7 The Efficiency Surface	125	(7)
4.8 Efficiency Behavior of Very Deep Gratings	132	(4)
4.9 Efficiency Behavior in Grazing Incidence	136	(3)
4.10 X-Ray Gratings	139	(2)
4.11 Single Wavelength Efficiency Peak in Unpolarized Light	141	(1)
4.12 Conclusions	142	(1)
References	143	(2)
Additional Reading	145	(1)
X-Ray Gratings	146	(3)
Chapter 5: Transmission Gratings	149	(42)
5.1 Introduction	149	(1)
5.2 Transmission Grating Physics	150	(3)
5.3 Scalar Transmission Efficiency Behavior	153	(1)
5.4 Efficiency Behavior of Blazed Transmission Gratings	154	(1)
5.5 Transmission Grating Prisms	156	(2)
5.6 Fresnel Lenses and Zone Plates	158	(9)
5.6.1 Geometrical Properties of Plane Lenses	159	(2)
5.6.2 Imaging Properties	161	(1)
5.6.3 Diffraction Efficiency	162	(5)
5.7 Blazed Transmission Gratings as Beam Dividers	167	(1)
5.8 Trapezoidal Gratings as Beam Splitters	168	(4)
5.9 Multiple Order Transmission Gratings (Fan-Out Gratings)	172	(7)
5.10 Bragg Transmission Gratings	179	(3)
5.11 Transmission Gratings Under Total Internal Reflection	182	(2)
5.12 Zero Order Diffraction (ZOD) Microimages	184	(2)
5.13 Ronchi Rulings	186	(2)
References	188	(1)
Additional Reading	189	(2)
Chapter 6: Echelle Gratings	191	(62)
6.1 Introduction	191	(2)
6.1.1 History	192	(1)
6.2 Production of Echelles	193	(1)
6.3 Physics of Echelles	194	(6)
6.3.1 The Grating Equation	194	(1)
6.3.2 Angular Dispersion	195	(1)
6.3.3 Free Spectral Range	196	(2)
6.3.4 Resolution	198	(1)
6.3.5 Immersion of Echelles	198	(2)
Anamorphic Immersion System	199	(1)
6.4 Efficiency Behavior of Echelles	200	(32)
6.4.1 Scalar Model for Efficiency	202	(2)
6.4.2 Rigorous Electromagetic Efficiency Theory	204	(1)
6.4.3 Efficiency Behavior in High Orders	205	(6)
6.4.4 Efficiency Behavior in Medium Orders	211	(6)
6.4.5 Efficiency Behavior in Low Orders	217	(5)
6.4.6 Confirmation of Theory	222	(4)
6.4.7 Efficiency Behavior in Spectrometer Modes	226	(5)
6.4.8 Effects of Severe Groove Shape Disturbance	231	(1)
6.4.9 A Useful Role for Anomalies	231	(1)
6.5 The Role of Overcoatings	232	(1)
6.6 Instrument Design Concepts	233	(9)
6.6.1 Choice of Echelle	233	(1)
6.6.2 Cross Dispersion: Prisms vs. Gratings	234	(1)
6.6.3 Examples of Echelle Instruments	235	(7)
UV Rocket Spectrograph	237	(1)
HIRES: High Resolution Echelle Spectrometer	238	(1)
Compact High Resolution Spectrograph	238	(3)
Ultra-Short Wavelength Satellite Spectrograph	241	(1)
6.7 Maximum Resolution Systems	242	(3)
6.7.1 The MEGA Spectrometer	243	(2)
6.8 Transmission Echelles	245	(1)
6.9 Comparing Echelles with Holographic Gratings	246	(1)
References	247	(2)
Additional Reading	249	(4)
Chapter 7: Concave Gratings	253	(32)
7.1 Introduction	253	(2)
7.2 Aberrations in Concave Gratings	255	(9)
7.2.1 Aberration Function of Concave Gratings	255	(4)
7.2.2 Aberrations of Concave Diffraction Gratings	259	(5)
Astigmatism	261	(1)
Coma	262	(1)
Spherical Aberration	263	(1)
7.3 Focal Curves	264	(5)
7.3.1 Definition and Properties	264	(2)
7.3.2 Types of Focal Curves	266	(3)
7.4 Grating Image Deformation Estimation and Optimization: Flat-Field Spectrograph and Monochromator	269	(3)
7.5 Types of Concave Gratings	272	(5)
7.5.1 Schemes for Holographic Recording of Concave Gratings	272	(4)
7.5.2 Commercial Types of Concave Gratings and Their Design	276	(1)
7.6 Efficiency Behavior of Concave Gratings	277	(3)
7.6.1 Efficiency of Holographic Concave Gratings	279	(1)
7.6.2 Blazed Concave Gratings	280	(1)
References	280	(2)
Additional Reading	282	(3)
Chapter 8: Surface Waves and Grating Anomalies	285	(38)
8.1 Grating Anomalies	285	(3)
8.2 Phenomenological Approach	288	(8)
8.2.1 Guided Wave and a Pole of the Scattering Matrix	291	(1)
8.2.2 Pole of the Scattering Matrix and Diffraction Efficiencies	292	(4)
8.3 Types of Surface Waves	296	(1)
8.4 Influence of Surface Waves on Metallic Grating Properties	297	(9)
8.4.1 Total Absorption of Light by Metallic Gratings	298	(7)
8.4.2 Gratings Supporting Several Orders	305	(1)
8.5 Resonance Anomalies in Dielectric Overcoated Metallic Grating	306	(4)
8.6 Resonance Anomalies in Corrugated Dielectric Waveguides	310	(1)
8.7 Multilayered Dielectric Gratings	310	(7)
References	317	(2)
Additional Reading	319	(4)
Chapter 9: Waveguide, Fiber, and Acousto-Optic Gratings	323	(44)
9.1 Introduction	323	(2)
9.2 Mode Coupling by Gratings	325	(9)
9.2.1 Couple-Mode Approach	326	(2)
9.2.2 Types of Mode Coupling	328	(3)
9.2.3 Contra-Directional Coupling	331	(3)
9.3 Distributed Planar Waveguide Grating Laser Mirrors	334	(2)
9.4 Wavelength Demultiplexing in Planar Waveguides	336	(4)
9.5 Input/Output Waveguide Grating Couplers	340	(5)
9.6 Photonic Band-Gap in Waveguide Gratings	345	(1)
9.7 Fiber Grating Physics	346	(4)
9.8 Fiber Grating Lasers	350	(1)
9.9 Fiber Grating Filters	351	(4)
9.10 Fiber Grating Sensors	355	(1)
9.11 Mode Conversion by Fiber Gratings	356	(1)
9.12 Acousto-Optic and Electro-Optic Gratings	356	(4)
References	360	(5)
Additional Reading	365	(2)
Chapter 10: Review of Electromagnetic Theories of Grating Efficiencies	367	(34)
10.1 Introduction	367	(1)
10.2 The Physical Problem	367	(6)
10.3 The Rayleigh Hypothesis	373	(2)
10.4 Scalar Theory	375	(1)
10.5 Classical Differential Method	376	(3)
10.6 Modal Methods	379	(2)
10.6.1 The Method of Moharam and Gaylord	379	(1)
10.6.2 The Classical Modal Method	380	(1)
10.7 The Integral Method	381	(2)
10.8 The Finite-Element Method	383	(1)
10.9 The Method of Fictitious Sources	384	(3)
10.10 The Method of Coordinate Transformation	387	(1)
10.11 Theory of Waveguide Gratings	388	(3)
10.12 Conclusions	391	(3)
References	394	(1)
Additional Reading	395	(6)
Reviews on Theoretical Methods	395	(1)
General Theoretical Problems	396	(1)
Differential Methods	396	(1)
Modal Methods	396	(1)
Conformal Mapping Methods	397	(1)
Transformation of Coordinate System	397	(1)
Integral Methods	397	(1)
Fictitious Sources Methods	398	(1)
Rayleigh Methods	399	(1)
Yasuura Method	399	(1)
Approximate Methods	399	(2)
Chapter 11: Testing of Gratings	401	(36)
11.1 Introduction	401	(1)
11.2 Spectral Purity	402	(11)
11.2.1 Effects of Grating Deficiencies on Spectral Purity	402	(4)
11.2.2 Non-Periodic Groove Position Errors	406	(4)
Random Errors	406	(1)
Satellites	407	(2)
Roughness Induced Scattering	409	(1)
Effect of Variations in Groove Depth	409	(1)
11.2.3 The Measurement of Grating Stray Light	410	(3)
11.2.4 Locating Stray Light Sources on a Grating Surface	413	(1)
11.3 The Measurement of Efficiency	413	(10)
11.3.1 Efficiency Measurement Systems--Plane Gratings	414	(3)
11.3.2 Efficiency Measurement Systems--Concave Gratings	417	(1)
11.3.3 Efficiency Measurement Systems--Echelle Gratings	418	(2)
11.3.4 Checking Blaze Specifications	420	(3)
11.4 The Measurement of Resolution	423	(9)
11.4.1 Testing with the Mercury Spectrum	425	(1)
11.4.2 The Foucault Knife Edge Test	426	(2)
11.4.3 Resolution Testing by Wavefront Interferometry	428	(4)
11.5 Testing of Concave Interference Gratings	432	(2)
11.5.1 Measurement of Imaging Properties	432	(2)
11.6 Role of Replication	434	(1)
11.7 Cosmetics	434	(1)
References	434	(1)
Additional Reading	435	(2)
Chapter 12: Instrumental Systems	437	(44)
12.1 Introduction	437	(2)
12.2 Terminology	439	(1)
12.3 Classification of Instruments	439	(2)
12.4 How to Choose a Design	441	(2)
12.5 Plane Grating Mounts	443	(10)
12.5.1 The Czerny - Turner Mount	445	(4)
12.5.2 The Ebert - Fastie Mount	449	(2)
12.5.3 The Monk - Gillison Mount	451	(1)
12.5.4 Grating Drives	452	(1)
12.6 Concave Grating Mounts	453	(11)
12.6.1 The Rowland Mounting	455	(1)
12.6.2 The Abney Mount	455	(1)
12.6.3 The Paschen - Runge Mount	456	(1)
12.6.4 The Eagle Mount	457	(1)
12.6.5 The Wadsworth Mount	458	(3)
12.6.6 The Seya - Namioka Mount	461	(1)
12.6.7 Flat Field Concave Grating Spectrographs	462	(1)
12.6.8 Grazing Incidence Mounts	463	(1)
12.7 Tandem Monochromators	464	(2)
12.8 Imaging Spectrometers	466	(2)
12.9 Multiplexing Spectrographs	468	(3)
12.10 The Role of Fiber Optics in Spectrographs	471	(1)
12.11 Laser Tuning	472	(3)
12.12 On Absolute Groove Spacing	475	(1)
12.13 Multiple Entrance Apertures	476	(1)
References	476	(4)
Additional Reading	480	(1)
Chapter 13: Grating Damage and Control	481	(14)
13.1 Introduction	481	(1)
13.2 Reflection Gratings	482	(8)
13.2.1 The Fingerprint Problem	482	(1)
13.2.2 Vacuum System Residues	483	(1)
13.2.3 Laser Beam Damage - CW	484	(1)
13.2.4 Laser Damage with Pulsed Lasers	485	(2)
13.2.5 Dielectric Reflection Gratings	487	(2)
13.2.6 Synchrotron Grating Applications	489	(1)
13.3 Transmission Gratings	490	(1)
13.3.1 Photoresist Gratings	490	(1)
13.3.2 Monolithic Dielectric Gratings	491	(1)
13.4 Overcoatings	491	(1)
References	492	(1)
Additional Reading	493	(2)
Chapter 14: Mechanical Ruling of Gratings	495	(36)
14.1 Introduction	495	(1)
14.2 History	496	(4)
14.3 Generating Grooves	500	(7)
14.3.1 Metallic Ruling Coatings	505	(1)
14.3.2 Master Blanks for Gratings Ruling	506	(1)
14.4 Accuracy Requirements	507	(3)
14.4.1 Constancy of Spacing	507	(2)
14.4.2 Groove Straightness	509	(1)
14.4.3 Random Spacing Errors	509	(1)
14.4.4 Periodic Errors	509	(1)
14.5 Ruling Engine Design Concepts	510	(18)
14.5.1 The Mechanical Motions	510	(3)
14.5.2 Grating Carriage Drives	513	(1)
14.5.3 Concepts for Error Reduction	514	(1)
14.5.4 Interferometer Feedback Control	515	(3)
Optical Systems	516	(2)
14.5.5 Examples of Ruling Engines	518	(9)
The Michelson Engine	518	(3)
The B - Engine	521	(4)
The Bartlett - Wildy Engine	525	(1)
The Hitachi Ruling Engine	525	(2)
14.5.6 Environmental Factors	527	(1)
Temperature Control	527	(1)
Vibration Isolation	528	(1)
References	528	(2)
Additional Reading	530	(1)
Chapter 15: Holographic Gratings Recording	531	(24)
15.1 Introduction	531	(3)
15.2 Photoresist Layer and Groove Formation	534	(4)
15.3 Two-Beam Symmetrical Recording	538	(4)
15.4 Blazing of Holographic Gratings	542	(10)
15.4.1 Asymmetrical 2-Beam Recording	542	(2)
15.4.2 Fourier Synthesis (Multiple-Beam Recording)	544	(4)
15.4.3 Blazing Through Ion Etching	548	(1)
15.4.4 The Practical Result of Blazing	548	(4)
References	552	(1)
Additional Reading	553	(2)
Chapter 16: Alternative Methods of Gratings Manufacture	555	(22)
16.1 Introduction	555	(1)
16.2 Tools of Alternative Methods for Generating Gratings	556	(1)
16.3 The Problem of Blazing	556	(7)
16.3.1 Blazing With Multiple Mask Lithography	557	(2)
16.3.2 Blazing by Direct Methods	559	(4)
The Use of Charged Beams	559	(3)
The Use of Light Beams	562	(1)
16.4 Pattern-Generating Equipment	563	(3)
16.5 Single Beam Writing with Surface Waves	566	(1)
16.6 Photomask Interference Method	567	(4)
16.7 Single Beam Writing of Fiber Gratings	571	(1)
16.8 Grating Etched Inside Planar Waveguide	572	(1)
16.9 Conclusions	573	(1)
References	573	(1)
Additional Reading	574	(3)
Chapter 17: Replication of Gratings	577	(12)
17.1 Introduction	577	(1)
17.2 The Basic Grating Replication Process	577	(7)
17.2.1 The Substrate	579	(2)
Choice of Materials	579	(1)
Surface Properties	580	(1)
Aspheric Replication	580	(1)
17.2.2 Replication Resins	581	(1)
Thickness of Replica Films	582	(1)
17.2.3 High Temperature Resistance	582	(1)
17.2.4 Environmental Resistance	582	(1)
17.2.5 Transmission Grating Replication	583	(1)
17.2.6 Overcoatings	583	(1)
17.3 Separation of Master and Replica	584	(1)
17.4 Replication Testing	585	(1)
17.5 Multiple Replication	585	(1)
17.6 Alternative Replication Methods	586	(1)
17.6.1 Injection Molding	586	(1)
17.6.2 Embossing	586	(1)
17.6.3 Soft Replication	586	(1)
References	587	(1)
Additional Reading	587	(2)
Index	589