Digital Integrated Circuits

by Rabaey, Jan M.; Chandrakasan, Anantha; Nikolic, Borivoje

• ISBN13: 9780130909961
• ISBN10: 0130909963
• Edition: 2nd
• Format: Paperback
• Copyright: 2002-12-24
• Publisher: Pearson

Summary

Progressive in content and form, this practical book successfully bridges the gap between the circuit perspective and system perspective of digital integrated circuit design.Digital Integrated Circuitsmaintains a consistent, logical flow of subject matter throughout.Addresses today's most significant and compelling industry topics, including: the impact of interconnect, design for low power, issues in timing and clocking, design methodologies, and the tremendous effect of design automation on the digital design perspective.For readers interested in digital circuit design.

Table of Contents

Preface	vii
Part 1 The Fabrics	1	(66)
Introduction	3	(32)
A Historical Perspective	4	(2)
Issues in Digital Integrated Circuit Design	6	(9)
Quality Metrics of a Digital Design	15	(16)
Cost of an Integrated Circuit	16	(2)
Functionality and Robustness	18	(9)
Performance	27	(3)
Power and Energy Consumption	30	(1)
Summary	31	(1)
To Probe Further	31	(4)
Reference Books	32	(1)
References	33	(2)
The Manufacturing Process	35	(32)
Introduction	36	(1)
Manufacturing CMOS Integrated Circuits	36	(11)
The Silicon Wafer	37	(1)
Photolithography	37	(4)
Some Recurring Process Steps	41	(1)
Simplified CMOS Process Flow	42	(5)
Design Rules---The Contract between Designer and Process Engineer	47	(4)
Packaging Integrated Circuits	51	(10)
Package Materials	52	(1)
Interconnect Levels	53	(6)
Thermal Considerations in Packaging	59	(2)
Perspective---Trends in Process Technology	61	(3)
Short-Term Developments	61	(2)
In the Longer Term	63	(1)
Summary	64	(1)
To Probe Further	64	(3)
References	64	(3)
Design Methodology Insert A IC LAYOUT	67	(64)
To Probe Further	71	(2)
References	71	(2)
The Devices	73	(58)
Introduction	74	(1)
The Diode	74	(13)
A First Glance at the Diode---The Depletion Region	75	(2)
Static Behavior	77	(3)
Dynamic, or Transient, Behavior	80	(4)
The Actual Diode---Secondary Effects	84	(1)
The SPICE Diode Model	85	(2)
The MOS(FET) Transistor	87	(33)
A First Glance at the Device	87	(1)
The MOS Transistor under Static Conditions	88	(26)
The Actual MOS Transistor---Some Secondary Effects	114	(3)
SPICE Models for the MOS Transistor	117	(3)
A Word on Process Variations	120	(2)
Perspective---Technology Scaling	122	(6)
Summary	128	(1)
To Probe Further	129	(2)
References	130	(1)
Design Methodology Insert B Circuit Simulation	131	(46)
References	134	(1)
The Wire	135	(42)
Introduction	136	(1)
A First Glance	136	(2)
Interconnect Parameters---Capacitance, Resistance, and Inductance	138	(12)
Capacitance	138	(6)
Resistance	144	(4)
Inductance	148	(2)
Electrical Wire Models	150	(20)
The Ideal Wire	151	(1)
The Lumped Model	151	(1)
The Lumped RC Model	152	(4)
The Distributed rc Line	156	(3)
The Transmission Line	159	(11)
SPICE Wire Models	170	(4)
Distributed rc Lines in SPICE	170	(1)
Transmission Line Models in SPICE	170	(1)
Perspective: A Look into the Future	171	(3)
Summary	174	(1)
To Probe Further	174	(3)
References	174	(3)
Part 2 A Circuit Perspective	177	(132)
The CMOS Inverter	179	(56)
Introduction	180	(1)
The Static CMOS Inverter---An Intuitive Perspective	180	(4)
Evaluating the Robustness of the CMOS Inverter: The Static Behavior	184	(9)
Switching Threshold	185	(3)
Noise Margins	188	(3)
Robustness Revisited	191	(2)
Performance of CMOS Inverter: The Dynamic Behavior	193	(20)
Computing the Capacitances	194	(5)
Propagation Delay: First-Order Analysis	199	(4)
Propagation Delay from a Design Perspective	203	(10)
Power, Energy, and Energy Delay	213	(16)
Dynamic Power Consumption	214	(9)
Static Consumption	223	(2)
Putting It All Together	225	(2)
Analyzing Power Consumption Using SPICE	227	(2)
Perspective: Technology Scaling and its Impact on the Inverter Metrics	229	(3)
Summary	232	(1)
To Probe Further	233	(2)
References	233	(2)
Designing Combinational Logic Gates in CMOS	235	(74)
Introduction	236	(1)
Static CMOS Design	236	(48)
Complementary CMOS	237	(26)
Ratioed Logic	263	(6)
Pass-Transistor Logic	269	(15)
Dynamic CMOS Design	284	(19)
Dynamic Logic: Basic Principles	284	(3)
Speed and Power Dissipation of Dynamic Logic	287	(3)
Signal Integrity Issues in Dynamic Design	290	(5)
Cascading Dynamic Gates	295	(8)
Perspectives	303	(3)
How to Choose a Logic Style?	303	(1)
Designing Logic for Reduced Supply Voltages	303	(3)
Summary	306	(1)
To Probe Further	307	(2)
References	308	(1)
Design Methodology Insert C How to Simulate Complex Logic Circuits	309	(10)
Representing Digital Data as a Continuous Entity	310	(1)
Representing Data as a Discrete Entity	310	(5)
Using Higher-Level Data Models	315	(4)
References	317	(2)
Design Methodology Insert D Layout Techniques for Complex Gates	319	(56)
Designing Sequential Logic Circuits	325	(50)
Introduction	326	(4)
Timing Metrics for Sequential Circuits	327	(1)
Classification of Memory Elements	328	(2)
Static Latches and Registers	330	(14)
The Bistability Principle	330	(2)
Multiplexer-Based Latches	332	(1)
Master-Slave Edge-Triggered Register	333	(6)
Low-Voltage Static Latches	339	(2)
Static SR Flip-Flops---Writing Data by Pure Force	341	(3)
Dynamic Latches and Registers	344	(10)
Dynamic Transmission-Gate Edge-triggered Registers	344	(2)
C2MOS---A Clock-Skew Insensitive Approach	346	(4)
True Single-Phase Clocked Register (TSPCR)	350	(4)
Alternative Register Styles*	354	(4)
Pulse Registers	354	(2)
Sense-Amplifier-Based Registers	356	(2)
Pipelining: An Approach to Optimize Sequential Circuits	358	(6)
Latch- versus Register-Based Pipelines	360	(1)
NORA-CMOS---A Logic Style for Pipelined Structures	361	(3)
Nonbistable Sequential Circuits	364	(6)
The Schmitt Trigger	364	(3)
Monostable Sequential Circuits	367	(1)
Astable Circuits	368	(2)
Perspective: Choosing a Clocking Strategy	370	(1)
Summary	371	(1)
To Probe Further	372	(3)
References	372	(3)
Part 3 A System Perspective	375	(52)
Implementation Strategies for Digital ICS	377	(50)
Introduction	378	(4)
From Custom to Semicustom and Structured-Array Design Approaches	382	(1)
Custom Circuit Design	383	(1)
Cell-Based Design Methodology	384	(15)
Standard Cell	385	(5)
Compiled Cells	390	(2)
Macrocells, Megacells and Intellectual Property	392	(4)
Semicustom Design Flow	396	(3)
Array-Based Implementation Approaches	399	(21)
Prediffused (or Mask-Programmable) Arrays	399	(5)
Prewired Arrays	404	(16)
Perspective---The Implementation Platform of the Future	420	(3)
Summary	423	(1)
To Probe Further	423	(4)
References	424	(3)
Design Methodology Insert E Characterizing Logic and Sequential Cells	427	(8)
References	434	(1)
Design Methodology Insert F Design Synthesis	435	(118)
References	443	(2)
Coping with Interconnect	445	(46)
Introduction	446	(1)
Capacitive Parasitics	446	(14)
Capacitance and Reliability---Cross Talk	446	(3)
Capacitance and Performance in CMOS	449	(11)
Resistive Parasitics	460	(9)
Resistance and Reliability---Ohmic Voltage Drop	460	(2)
Electromigration	462	(2)
Resistance and Performance---RC Delay	464	(5)
Inductive Parasitics*	469	(11)
Inductance and Reliability---Voltage Drop	469	(6)
Inductance and Performance---Transmission-line Effects	475	(5)
Advanced Interconnect Techniques	480	(7)
Reduced-Swing Circuits	480	(6)
Current-Mode Transmission Techniques	486	(1)
Perspective: Networks-on-a-Chip	487	(1)
Summary	488	(1)
To Probe Further	489	(2)
References	489	(2)
Timing Issues in Digital Circuits	491	(62)
Introduction	492	(1)
Timing Classification of Digital Systems	492	(3)
Synchronous Interconnect	492	(1)
Mesochronous interconnect	493	(1)
Plesiochronous Interconnect	493	(1)
Asynchronous Interconnect	494	(1)
Synchronous Design---An In-depth Perspective	495	(24)
Synchronous Timing Basics	495	(7)
Sources of Skew and Jitter	502	(6)
Clock-Distribution Techniques	508	(8)
Latch-Based Clocking*	516	(3)
Self-Timed Circuit Design*	519	(15)
Self-Timed Logic---An Asynchronous Technique	519	(3)
Completion-Signal Generation	522	(4)
Self-Timed Signaling	526	(5)
Practical Examples of Self-Timed Logic	531	(3)
Synchronizers and Arbiters*	534	(5)
Synchronizers---Concept and Implementation	534	(4)
Arbiters	538	(1)
Clock Synthesis and Synchronization Using a Phase-Locked Loop*	539	(7)
Basic Concept	540	(2)
Building Blocks of a PLL	542	(4)
Future Directions and Perspectives	546	(4)
Distributed Clocking Using DLLs	546	(2)
Optical Clock Distribution	548	(1)
Synchronous versus Asynchronous Design	549	(1)
Summary	550	(1)
To Probe Further	551	(2)
References	551	(2)
Design Methodology Insert G Design Verification	553	(168)
References	557	(2)
Designing Arithmetic Building Blocks	559	(64)
Introduction	560	(1)
Datapaths in Digital Processor Architectures	560	(1)
The Adder	561	(25)
The Binary Adder: Definitions	561	(3)
The Full Adder: Circuit Design Considerations	564	(7)
The Binary Adder: Logic Design Considerations	571	(15)
The Multiplier	586	(8)
The Multiplier: Definitions	586	(1)
Partial-Product Generation	587	(2)
Partial-Product Accumulation	589	(4)
Final Addition	593	(1)
Multiplier Summary	594	(1)
The Shifter	594	(2)
Barrel Shifter	595	(1)
Logarithmic Shifter	596	(1)
Other Arithmetic Operators	596	(4)
Power and Speed Trade-offs in Datapath Structures*	600	(18)
Design Time Power-Reduction Techniques	601	(10)
Run-Time Power Management	611	(6)
Reducing the Power in Standby (or Sleep) Mode	617	(1)
Perspective: Design as a Trade-off	618	(1)
Summary	619	(1)
To Probe Further	620	(3)
References	621	(2)
Designing Memory and Array Structures	623	(98)
Introduction	624	(10)
Memory Classification	625	(2)
Memory Architectures and Building Blocks	627	(7)
The Memory Core	634	(38)
Read-Only Memories	634	(13)
Nonvolatile Read-Write Memories	647	(10)
Read-Write Memories (RAM)	657	(13)
Contents-Addressable or Associative Memory (CAM)	670	(2)
Memory Peripheral Circuitry*	672	(21)
The Address Decoders	672	(7)
Sense Amplifiers	679	(7)
Voltage References	686	(3)
Drivers/Buffers	689	(1)
Timing and Control	689	(4)
Memory Reliability and Yield*	693	(8)
Signal-to-Noise Ratio	693	(5)
Memory Yield	698	(3)
Power Dissipation in Memories*	701	(6)
Sources of Power Dissipation in Memories	701	(1)
Partitioning of the Memory	702	(1)
Addressing the Active Power Dissipation	702	(2)
Data-Retention Dissipation	704	(3)
Summary	707	(1)
Case Studies in Memory Design	707	(7)
The Programmable Logic Array (PLA)	707	(3)
A 4-Mbit SRAM	710	(2)
A 1-Gbit NAND Flash Memory	712	(2)
Perspective: Semiconductor Memory Trends and Evolutions	714	(2)
Summary	716	(1)
To Probe Further	717	(4)
References	718	(3)
Design Methodology Insert H Validation and Test of Manufactured Circuits	721	(18)
Introduction	721	(1)
Test Procedure	722	(1)
Design for Testability	723	(11)
Issues in Design for Testability	723	(2)
Ad Hoc Testing	725	(1)
Scan-Based Test	726	(3)
Boundary-Scan Design	729	(1)
Built-in Self-Test (BIST)	730	(4)
Test-Pattern Generation	734	(3)
Fault Models	734	(2)
Automatic Test-Pattern Generation (ATPG)	736	(1)
Fault Simulation	737	(1)
To Probe Further	737	(2)
References	737	(2)
Problem Solutions	739	(6)
Index	745

Excerpts

What is New?Welcome to second edition of "Digital Integrated Circuits: A Design Perspective." In the six years since the publication of the first, the field of digital integrated circuits has gone through some dramatic evolutions and changes. IC manufacturing technology has continued to scale to ever-smaller dimensions. Minimum feature sizes have scaled by a factor of almost ten since the writing of the first edition, and now are approaching the 100 nm realm. This scaling has a double impact on the design of digital integrated circuit. First of all, the complexity of the designs that can be put on a single die has increased dramatically. Dealing with the challenges this poses has led to new design methodologies and implementation strategies. At the same time, the plunge into the deep-submicron space causes devices to behave differently, and brings to the forefront a number of new issues that impact the reliability, cost, performance, and power dissipation of the digital IC. Addressing these issues in-depth is what differentiates this edition from the first.A glance through the table of contents reveals extended coverage of issues such as deep-sub micron devices, circuit optimization, interconnect modeling and optimization, signal integrity, clocking and timing, and power dissipation. All these topics are illustrated with state-of-the-art design examples. Also, since MOS now represents more than 99% of the digital IC market, older technologies such as silicon bipolar and GaAs have been deleted (however, the interested reader can find the old chapters on these technologies on the web site of the book). Given the importance of methodology in today's design process, we have includedDesign Methodology Insertsthroughout the text, each of which highlights one particular aspect of the design process. This new edition represents a major reworking of the book. The biggest change is the addition of two co-authors, Anantha and Bora, who have brought a broader insight into digital IC design and its latest trends and challenges. Maintaining the Spirit of the First EditionWhile introducing these changes, our intent has been to preserve the spirit and goals of the first edition--that is, to bridge the gap between thecircuit and system visionson digital design. While starting from a solid understanding of the operation of electronic devices and an in-depth analysis of the nucleus of digital design--the inverter--we gradually channel this knowledge into the design of more complex modules such as gates, registers, controllers, adders, multipliers, and memories. We identify the compelling questions facing the designers of today's complex circuits: What are the dominant design parameters, what section of the design should he focus on and what details could she ignore? Simplification is clearly the only approach to address the increasing complexity of the digital systems. However, oversimplification can lead to circuit failure since global circuit effects such as timing, interconnect, and power consumption are ignored. To avoid this pitfall it is important to design digital circuits with both a circuits and a systems perspective in mind. This is the approach taken in this book, which brings the reader the knowledge and expertise needed to deal with complexity, using both analytical and experimental techniques. How to Use This BookThe core of the text is intended for use in asenior-level digital circuit design class.Around this kernel, we have included chapters and sections covering the more advanced topics. In the course of developing this book, it quickly became obvious that it is difficult to define a subset of the digital circuit design domain that covers everyone's needs. On the one hand, a newcomer to the field needs detailed coverage of the basic concepts. On the other hand, feedback from early readers and reviewers indicated that an in-depth