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Introduction to Physical Geography | p. 2 |
The Scope of Geography | p. 4 |
Defining Physical Geography | p. 5 |
The Earth's Four Spheres | p. 8 |
Organization of This Book | p. 11 |
Exploring Cause-and-Effect Relationships | p. 11 |
An Interactive Tool | p. 11 |
GeoDiscoveries: Stream Meandering | p. 12 |
Focus on Geographical Literacy | p. 12 |
Physical Geography Is Interesting, Exciting, and Relevant to Your Life | p. 12 |
The Big Picture | p. 13 |
The Geographers' Tools | p. 14 |
The Geographic Grid | p. 16 |
Latitude | p. 17 |
Longitude | p. 20 |
Using the Geographic Grid | p. 22 |
GeoDiscoveries: Using the Geographic Grid | p. 23 |
Amazing Places: Big But Hard to Reach | p. 24 |
Maps-The Basic Tool of Geographers | p. 23 |
Map Projections | p. 26 |
Map Scale | p. 29 |
Isolines | p. 32 |
GeoDiscoveries: Using Maps | p. 33 |
Digital Technology in Geography | p. 36 |
Remote Sensing | p. 36 |
What a Geographer Sees: Infrared Images | p. 40 |
Global Positioning Systems | p. 40 |
Geographic Information Systems | p. 42 |
GeoDiscoveries: Using a Geographic Information System | p. 43 |
The Big Picture | p. 44 |
Earth-Sun Geometry and the Seasons | p. 46 |
Our Place in Space | p. 48 |
The Shape of the Earth | p. 49 |
Amazing Places: The Sun | p. 50 |
Earth's Orbit Around the Sun | p. 51 |
The Earth's Rotation and Axial Tilt | p. 52 |
The Seasons | p. 55 |
Solstice and Equinox | p. 56 |
GeoDiscoveries: Orbital View and Earth as Viewed from the Sun | p. 58 |
How We See Earth-Sun Geometry on Earth | p. 60 |
Day and Night | p. 60 |
Seasonal Changes in Sun Position (Angle) and Length of Day | p. 60 |
GeoDiscoveries: Celestial Dome | p. 62 |
GeoDiscoveries: Sun Angle and Length of Day | p. 62 |
What a Geographer Sees: Sunrise in the Southern Hemisphere | p. 63 |
The Big Picture | p. 64 |
The Global Energy System | p. 66 |
The Electromagnetic Spectrum and Solar Energy | p. 68 |
The Electromagnetic Spectrum | p. 68 |
GeoDiscoveries: The Electromagnetic Spectrum | p. 70 |
Solar Energy and the Solar Constant | p. 70 |
Composition of the Atmosphere | p. 71 |
Constant Gases | p. 71 |
Variable Gases | p. 72 |
What a Geographer Sees: The Formation of Rainbows | p. 74 |
Particulates | p. 78 |
The Flow of Solar Radiation on Earth | p. 79 |
Heat Transfer | p. 79 |
Flow of Solar Radiation in the Atmosphere | p. 81 |
Interaction of Solar Radiation and the Earth's Surface | p. 83 |
GeoDiscoveries: The Angle of Incidence | p. 85 |
The Global Radiation Budget | p. 86 |
GeoDiscoveries: The Global Energy Budget | p. 87 |
The Big Picture | p. 92 |
Global Temperature Patterns | p. 94 |
Layered Structure of the Atmosphere | p. 96 |
The Troposphere | p. 97 |
The Stratosphere | p. 97 |
The Mesosphere | p. 98 |
The Thermosphere | p. 98 |
What a Geographer Sees: Auroras | p. 100 |
Surface and Air Temperatures | p. 99 |
Calculating the Heat Index and Wind Chill | p. 100 |
Large-Scale Geographic Factors That Influence Air Temperature | p. 101 |
Amazing Places: Temperature Extremes on Earth | p. 104 |
Local Factors That Influence Air Temperature | p. 106 |
GeoDiscoveries: Surface Temperature | p. 107 |
GeoDiscoveries: Maritime vs. Continental Effect | p. 109 |
The Annual Range of Surface Temperature (Putting It All Together) | p. 112 |
GeoDiscoveries: Temperature and Location | p. 114 |
The Big Picture | p. 115 |
Atmospheric Pressure, Wind, and Global Circulation | p. 118 |
Atmospheric Pressure | p. 120 |
Factors That Influence Air Pressure | p. 120 |
Measuring and Mapping Air Pressure | p. 121 |
Atmospheric Pressure Systems | p. 123 |
Low-Pressure Systems | p. 123 |
High-Pressure Systems | p. 123 |
What A Geographer Sees: Migrating Pressure Systems | p. 127 |
The Direction Of Air Flow | p. 125 |
Unequal Heating of Land Surfaces | p. 125 |
Pressure Gradient Force | p. 126 |
GeoDiscoveries: Fluctuations in the Pressure Gradient | p. 129 |
Coriolis Force | p. 128 |
GeoDiscoveries: The Coriolis Force | p. 130 |
Frictional Forces | p. 130 |
Global Pressure and Atmospheric Circulation | p. 132 |
Tropical Circulation | p. 134 |
Midlatitude Circulation | p. 136 |
Polar Circulation | p. 139 |
Seasonal Migration of Pressure Systems | p. 139 |
Amazing Places: Mt. Washington | p. 140 |
GeoDiscoveries: Global Atmospheric Circulation | p. 142 |
Local Wind Systems | p. 143 |
Land-Sea Breezes | p. 143 |
Topographic Winds | p. 144 |
Oceanic Circulation | p. 145 |
Gyres and Thermohaline Circulation | p. 145 |
El Nino | p. 148 |
GeoDiscoveries: El Nino | p. 148 |
The Big Picture | p. 149 |
Atmospheric Moisture and Precipitation | p. 152 |
Physical Properties of Water | p. 154 |
Hydrogen Bonding | p. 154 |
Thermal Properties of Water and Its Physical States | p. 155 |
GeoDiscoveries: Latent Heat | p. 157 |
The Hydrosphere and the Hydrologic Cycle | p. 157 |
Humidity | p. 159 |
Maximum, Specific, and Relative Humidity | p. 159 |
Dew-Point Temperature | p. 163 |
Amazing Places: Death Valley | p. 164 |
GeoDiscoveries: Atmospheric Humidity | p. 165 |
Evaporation | p. 167 |
Adiabatic Processes | p. 168 |
The Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate | p. 168 |
The Wet Adiabatic Lapse Rate | p. 169 |
GeoDiscoveries: Adiabatic Processes | p. 170 |
Cloud Formation and Classification | p. 171 |
Fog | p. 172 |
Cloud Classification | p. 173 |
What a Geographer Sees: Unusual Clouds | p. 176 |
Precipitation | p. 178 |
Types of Precipitation | p. 178 |
Precipitation Processes | p. 179 |
GeoDiscoveries: Convectional Precipitation | p. 183 |
GeoDiscoveries: Orographic Processes | p. 184 |
The Big Picture | p. 186 |
Air Masses and Cyclonic Weather Systems | p. 188 |
Air Masses and Fronts | p. 190 |
Air Masses | p. 190 |
Fronts | p. 192 |
Evolution and Character of Midlatitude Cyclones | p. 193 |
Upper Air Flow and the 500-mb Pressure Surface | p. 194 |
Interaction of Upper Air Flow and Surface Air Flow | p. 196 |
Cyclogenesis | p. 196 |
GeoDiscoveries: Formation of a Midlatitude Cyclone | p. 199 |
GeoDiscoveries: Migration of a Midlatitude Cyclone | p. 200 |
Thunderstorms | p. 201 |
Evolution of Thunderstorms | p. 201 |
Severe Thunderstorms | p. 201 |
Tornadoes | p. 205 |
Amazing Places: Tornado Alley | p. 208 |
GeoDiscoveries: Tornadoes | p. 208 |
Tropical Cyclones | p. 209 |
Hurricanes | p. 211 |
GeoDiscoveries: Migration of Hurricane Katrina | p. 214 |
The Big Picture | p. 216 |
Global Climates | p. 218 |
Climate and the Factors That Affect It | p. 220 |
Koppen Climate Classification | p. 221 |
Geography of Koppen Climates | p. 225 |
Character and Geographic Distribution of Tropical (A) Climates | p. 225 |
What a Geographer Sees: The Relationship of Climate and Vegetation | p. 226 |
GeoDiscoveries: The Tropical Savanna Climate (Aw) | p. 230 |
Character and Geographic Distribution of Arid and Semi-Arid (B) Climates | p. 228 |
Amazing Places: Atacama Desert | p. 234 |
Character and Geographic Distribution of Mesothermal (C) Climates | p. 235 |
GeoDiscoveries: Humid Subtropical Hot-Summer Climates (Cfa, Cwa) | p. 238 |
GeoDiscoveries: Marine West-Coast Climates (Cfb, Cfc) | p. 240 |
Character and Geographic Distribution of Microthermal (D) Climates | p. 240 |
Character and Geographic Distribution of Polar (E) Climates | p. 244 |
Character and Geographic Distribution of Highland (H) Climates | p. 246 |
GeoDiscoveries: Remote Sensing and Climate | p. 248 |
Global Climate Change | p. 249 |
The Carbon Cycle | p. 249 |
Is Anthropogenic Climate Change Really Occurring? | p. 251 |
Predicting Future Climate Change | p. 256 |
The Big Picture | p. 260 |
Plant Geography | p. 262 |
The Process of Photosynthesis | p. 264 |
The Relationship of Climate and Vegetation: The Character and Distribution of Global Biomes | p. 266 |
Forest Biomes | p. 268 |
What a Geographer Sees: Wildfires | p. 274 |
Amazing Places: The Coastal Redwoods | p. 276 |
Grassland Biomes | p. 276 |
Desert Biomes | p. 278 |
Tundra Biome | p. 280 |
Local and Regional Factors That Influence the Geographic Distribution of Vegetation | p. 281 |
Slope and Aspect | p. 281 |
Vertical Zonation | p. 282 |
Plant Succession | p. 284 |
GeoDiscoveries: Plant Succession | p. 285 |
Riparian Zones | p. 285 |
Human Influence on Vegetation Patterns | p. 286 |
Deforestation and Its Consequences | p. 286 |
GeoDiscoveries: Deforestation | p. 289 |
Agriculture in the Midlatitude Grassland Biome | p. 288 |
Overgrazing | p. 288 |
GeoDiscoveries: Remote Sensing and the Biosphere | p. 290 |
The Big Picture | p. 290 |
The Global Distribution and Character of Soils | p. 292 |
What Is Soil? | p. 294 |
Basic Soil Properties | p. 295 |
Soil-Forming (Pedogenic) Processes | p. 297 |
Soil-Forming Factors | p. 299 |
Amazing Places: Buried Soils at the Eustis Ash Pit in Nebraska | p. 302 |
Measurable Soil Characteristics | p. 305 |
What a Geographer Sees: Soil Conservation on Steep Slopes | p. 306 |
Soil Chemistry | p. 310 |
Soil pH | p. 310 |
Colloids and Cation Exchange | p. 311 |
Soil Profiles (Reading the Soil) | p. 312 |
Time and Soil Evolution | p. 313 |
Soil Science and Classification | p. 315 |
The Twelve Soil Orders | p. 315 |
GeoDiscoveries: African Climate, Vegetation, and Soils | p. 323 |
GeoDiscoveries: Regional Pedogenic Processes | p. 330 |
GeoDiscoveries: North American Climate, Vegetation, and Soils | p. 331 |
The Big Picture | p. 336 |
Earth's Internal Structure, Rock Cycle, and Geologic Time | p. 338 |
Earth's Inner Structure | p. 340 |
The Major Layers | p. 340 |
Rocks and Minerals In The Earth's Crust | p. 345 |
Igneous Rocks | p. 346 |
What a Geographer Sees: Exposed Igneous Intrusions | p. 348 |
Sedimentary Rocks | p. 350 |
Metamorphic Rocks | p. 356 |
The Rock Cycle | p. 356 |
GeoDiscoveries: The Rock Cycle | p. 357 |
Geologic Time | p. 357 |
GeoDiscoveries: Geologic Time | p. 359 |
Telling Geologic Time | p. 360 |
Putting Geologic Time in Perspective | p. 360 |
Amazing Places: The Grand Canyon | p. 362 |
Integrating Geologic Time and the Rock Cycle: The Spanish Peaks | p. 361 |
Basic Geomorphology of Continents and Ocean Basins | p. 365 |
Alpine Chains | p. 367 |
Continental Shields | p. 367 |
The Big Picture | p. 369 |
Tectonic Processes and Landforms | p. 372 |
Plate Tectonics | p. 374 |
The Lithospheric Plates | p. 374 |
Plate Movement | p. 375 |
Types of Plate Movement | p. 377 |
Passive Plate Margins | p. 377 |
GeoDiscoveries: Continental Drift | p. 379 |
Transform Plate Margins | p. 380 |
Plate Divergence | p. 380 |
Amazing Places: Olduvai Gorge | p. 382 |
Plate Convergence | p. 382 |
GeoDiscoveries: Folding | p. 388 |
GeoDiscoveries: Plate Tectonics | p. 390 |
Earthquakes | p. 390 |
Earthquake Processes | p. 390 |
Locating the Epicenter | p. 391 |
Measuring Earthquake Magnitude | p. 391 |
Types of Faults | p. 392 |
GeoDiscoveries: Types of Faults | p. 397 |
Volcanoes | p. 398 |
Explosive Volcanoes | p. 398 |
What a Geographer Sees: Crater Lake | p. 402 |
Fluid Volcanoes and Hotspots | p. 402 |
GeoDiscoveries: Volcanoes | p. 407 |
The Big Picture | p. 408 |
Weathering and Mass Movement | p. 410 |
Weathering | p. 412 |
Mechanical Weathering | p. 412 |
What a Geographer Sees: The Long-Term Effects of Weathering and Erosion on Mountains | p. 414 |
Amazing Places: Anasazi Cliff Dwellings Chemical Weathering | p. 418 |
GeoDiscoveries: Weathering | p. 423 |
Mass Wasting | p. 424 |
Rockfall | p. 425 |
Soil Creep | p. 426 |
Landslides | p. 427 |
Flows | p. 429 |
Avalanches | p. 429 |
GeoDiscoveries: Weathering and Mass Movements | p. 431 |
The Big Picture | p. 432 |
Groundwater and Karst Landscapes | p. 434 |
Movement and Storage of Groundwater | p. 436 |
The High Plains Aquifer | p. 438 |
Amazing Places: Oases in the Sahara Desert | p. 444 |
Subsidence | p. 443 |
Groundwater Contamination | p. 444 |
GeoDiscoveries: Hydrologic Cycle and Groundwater | p. 447 |
Karst Landforms and Landscapes | p. 447 |
Caves and Caverns | p. 448 |
Karst Topography | p. 449 |
Amazing Places: Tower Karst in China | p. 450 |
The Big Picture | p. 452 |
Fluvial Systems and Landforms | p. 454 |
Overland Flow and Drainage Basins | p. 456 |
Origin of Streams | p. 457 |
Drainage Basins | p. 458 |
Drainage Patterns, Density, and Stream Ordering | p. 460 |
GeoDiscoveries: The Rhine River | p. 462 |
Hydraulic Geometry and Channel Flow | p. 462 |
Stream Discharge | p. 463 |
Fluvial Processes and Landforms | p. 467 |
Erosion and Deposition | p. 467 |
Stream Gradation | p. 469 |
Amazing Places: Waterfalls | p. 472 |
GeoDiscoveries: The Graded Stream | p. 474 |
Evolution of Stream Valleys and Floodplains | p. 474 |
GeoDiscoveries: Stream Meandering | p. 477 |
What a Geographer Sees: Mississippi River Meanders | p. 478 |
Other Depositional Landforms Associated with Streams | p. 482 |
Human Interactions with Streams | p. 487 |
Urbanization | p. 487 |
Artificial Levees | p. 488 |
Dams and Reservoirs | p. 489 |
The Big Picture | p. 492 |
Glacial Geomorphology: Processes and Landforms | p. 494 |
Development of a Glacier | p. 496 |
The Metamorphosis of Snow to Glacial Ice | p. 496 |
The Glacial Mass Budget | p. 497 |
Glacial Movement | p. 498 |
Types of Glaciers | p. 501 |
Glaciers in Mountainous Regions | p. 501 |
Amazing Places: The Vatnajokull Ice Cap | p. 503 |
Continental Glaciers | p. 505 |
Glacial Landforms | p. 506 |
Landforms Made by Glacial Erosion | p. 506 |
Deposition of Glacial Drift and Resulting Landforms | p. 511 |
History of Glaciation | p. 516 |
How Many Pleistocene Glaciations Were There? | p. 517 |
The Wisconsin Glaciation and the Evolution of the Great Lakes | p. 520 |
What a Geographer Sees: The Channeled Scablands in Eastern Washington | p. 522 |
What Causes Glaciation? | p. 524 |
Glacial Periods and Earth-Sun Geometry | p. 524 |
GeoDiscoveries: The Milankovitch Theory | p. 526 |
Impact of Global Climate Change on Glaciers | p. 526 |
Periglacial Processes and Landscapes | p. 528 |
Permafrost | p. 528 |
Ground Ice and Associated Landforms | p. 531 |
The Big Picture | p. 532 |
Arid Landscapes and Eolian Processes | p. 534 |
Arid Landscapes | p. 536 |
Desert Geomorphology | p. 537 |
Eolian Erosion and Transport | p. 540 |
The Fluid Behavior of Wind and Sediment Transport | p. 540 |
Eolian Erosional Landforms | p. 541 |
Eolian Deposition and Landforms | p. 544 |
How Sand Dunes Form | p. 544 |
Types of Sand Dunes | p. 545 |
Amazing Places: Great Sand Dunes National Monument | p. 548 |
GeoDiscoveries: Eolian Processes and Landforms | p. 550 |
What a Geographer Sees: Sand Dunes on Mars | p. 551 |
Loess | p. 548 |
Human Interactions with Eolian Processes | p. 553 |
Desertification in the African Sahel | p. 553 |
Desertification in the Great Plains of the United States: The Dust Bowl | p. 555 |
The Big Picture | p. 558 |
Coastal Processes and Landforms | p. 560 |
Oceans and Seas on the Earth | p. 562 |
The Nature of Coastlines: Intersection of Earth's Spheres | p. 563 |
Processes That Shape the Coastline | p. 564 |
Amazing Places: Big Waves in Hawaii | p. 572 |
Coastal Landforms | p. 574 |
Erosional Coastlines | p. 574 |
What a Geographer Sees: Marine Terraces on San Clemente Island, California | p. 577 |
Depositional Coastlines | p. 578 |
GeoDiscoveries: Longshore Processes and Depositional Coastlines | p. 582 |
Human Imapcts on Coastlines | p. 586 |
Coastal Engineering | p. 586 |
Global Climate Change and the Impact on Coastlines | p. 588 |
Glossary | p. 593 |
Photo Credits | p. 607 |
Index | p. 611 |
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