Power distribution and quality remain the key challenges facing the electrical utilities industry. Technology alone cannot provide a solution to power quality problems, and there exists a variety of procedures and programs that can be put in place to ensure reliable, high quality electricity. With chapters carefully culled from the best-selling Electric Power Distribution Handbook, Distribution Reliability and Power Quality provides an economical, sharply focused reference for engineers and technicians working in this specialty area of power distribution.The book introduces the concept of reliability, outlining various methods of assessing and improving reliability along with the factors that affect it. It follows with a detailed look at voltage sags and momentary interruptions, various solutions to these issues, power quality monitoring, and other quality issues such as voltage unbalance and harmonics. Because faults are the cause of many interruptions and other power quality problems, the author devotes a detailed chapter to various aspects of faults. Focused on enhancing the delivery of high-quality power, this volume includes a new chapter on reliability and power quality improvement programs that provide a roadmap to better performance and ultimately to higher efficiency.Presenting a host of practical solutions for reliability and power quality specialists, Distribution Reliability and Power Quality gathers critical tools, techniques, and knowledge into a single source that is ideally suited for immediate implementation.

1 Reliability

1

(38)

1.1 Reliability Indices

1

(5)

1.1.1 Customer-Based Indices

1

(4)

1.1.2 Load-Based Indices

5

(1)

1.2 Storms and Weather

6

(4)

1.3 Variables Affecting Reliability Indices

10

(5)

1.3.1 Circuit Exposure and Load Density

10

(1)

1.3.2 Supply Configuration

11

(1)

1.3.3 Voltage

12

(1)

1.3.4 Long-Term Reliability Trends

13

(2)

1.4 Modeling Radial Distribution Circuits

15

(2)

1.5 Parallel Distribution Systems

17

(4)

1.6 Improving Reliability

21

(13)

1.6.1 Identify and Target Fault Causes

22

(1)

1.6.2 Identify and Target Circuits

23

(1)

1.6.3 Switching and Protection Equipment

23

(4)

1.6.4 Automation

27

(2)

1.6.5 Maintenance and Inspections

29

(2)

1.6.6 Restoration

31

(3)

1.6.7 Fault Reduction

34

(1)

1.7 Interruption Costs

34

(2)

References

36

(3)

2 Voltage Sags and Momentary Interruptions

39

(60)

2.1 Location

40

(2)

2.2 Momentary Interruptions

42

(3)

2.3 Voltage Sags

45

(9)

2.3.1 Effect of Phases

51

(1)

2.3.2 Load Response

51

(2)

2.3.3 Analysis of Voltage Sags

53

(1)

2.4 Characterizing Sags and Momentaries

54

(3)

2.4.1 Industry Standards

54

(2)

2.4.2 Characterization Details

56

(1)

2.5 Occurrences of Voltage Sags

57

(5)

2.5.1 Site Power Quality Variations

59

(3)

2.5.2 Transmission-Level Power Quality

62

(1)

2.6 Correlations of Sags and Momentaries

62

(1)

2.7 Factors That Influence Sag and Momentary Rates

63

(6)

2.7.1 Location

64

(2)

2.7.2 Load Density

66

(1)

2.7.3 Voltage Class

67

(1)

2.7.4 Comparison and Ranking of Factors

67

(2)

2.8 Prediction of Quality Indicators Based on Site Characteristics

69

(2)

2.9 Equipment Sensitivities

71

(10)

2.9.1 Computers and Electronic Power Supplies

71

(4)

2.9.2 Industrial Processes and Equipment

75

(6)

2.9.2.1 Relays and Contactors

76

(3)

2.9.2.2 Adjustable-Speed Drives

79

(2)

2.9.2.3 Programmable-Logic Controllers

81

(1)

2.9.3 Residential Equipment

81

(1)

2.10 Solution Options

81

(11)

2.10.1 Utility Options for Momentary Interruptions

81

(3)

2.10.2 Utility Options for Voltage Sags

84

(4)

2.10.2.1 Raising the Nominal Voltage

85

(1)

2.10.2.2 Line Reactors

85

(1)

2.10.2.3 Neutral Reactors

86

(1)

2.10.2.4 Current-Limiting Fuses

87

(1)

2.10.3 Utility Options with Nontraditional Equipment

88

(3)

2.10.3.1 Fast Transfer Switches

88

(1)

2.10.3.2 DVRs and Other Custom-Power Devices

89

(2)

2.10.4 Customer/Equipment Solutions

91

(1)

2.11 Power Quality Monitoring

92

(2)

References

94

(5)

3 Other Power Quality Issues

99

(48)

3.1 Overvoltages and Customer Equipment Failures

99

(5)

3.1.1 Secondary/Facility Grounding

101

(2)

3.1.2 Reclose Transients

103

(1)

3.2 Switching Surges

104

(8)

3.2.1 Voltage Magnification

108

(2)

3.2.2 Tripping of Adjustable-Speed Drives

110

(1)

3.2.3 Prevention of Capacitor Transients

111

(1)

3.3 Harmonics

112

(13)

3.3.1 Resonances

119

(2)

3.3.2 Telephone Interference

121

(4)

3.4 Flicker

125

(15)

3.4.1 Flicker Solutions

133

(20)

3.4.1.1 Load Changes

133

(2)

3.4.1.2 Series Capacitor

135

(3)

3.4.1.3 Static Var Compensator

138

(1)

3.4.1.4 Other Solutions

139

(1)

3.5 Voltage Unbalance

140

(3)

References

143

(4)

4 Faults

147

(62)

4.1 General Fault Characteristics

147

(6)

4.2 Fault Calculations

153

(25)

4.2.1 Transformer Connections

158

(1)

4.2.2 Fault Profiles

159

(3)

4.2.3 Effect of X/R Ratio

162

(3)

4.2.4 Secondary Faults

165

(2)

4.2.5 Primary-to-Secondary Faults

167

(4)

4.2.6 Underbuilt Fault to a Transmission Circuit

171

(3)

4.2.7 Fault Location Calculations

174

(4)

4.3 Limiting Fault Currents

178

(1)

4.4 Arc Characteristics

179

(6)

4.5 High-Impedance Faults

185

(4)

4.6 External Fault Causes

189

(10)

4.6.1 Trees

189

(7)

4.6.2 Weather and Lightning

196

(1)

4.6.3 Animals

197

(1)

4.6.4 Other External Causes

198

(1)

4.7 Equipment Faults

199

(1)

4.8 Faults in Equipment

200

(4)

References

204

(5)

5 Reliability and Power Quality Improvement Programs

209

(52)

5.1 Improvements in Protection Practices

209

(17)

5.1.1 Fusing

210

(1)

5.1.2 Fuse Saving vs. Fuse Blowing

211

(4)

5.1.3 Reclosing Practices.

215

(3)

5.1.4 Single-Phase Protective Devices

218

(3)

5.1.4.1 Ferroresonance

219

(1)

5.1.4.2 Backfeeds

219

(1)

5.1.4.3 Single-Phasing Impacts on Motors

220

(1)

5.1.4.4 Single-Phase Trip, Three-Phase Lockout

221

(1)

5.1.5 Improving Coordination

221

(1)

5.1.6 Locating Sectionalizing Equipment

222

(4)

5.2 Fault Sources

226

(20)

5.2.1 Trees

228

(5)

5.2.2 Lightning

233

(7)

5.2.3 Animals

240

(3)

5.2.4 Cable and Equipment Failures

243

(3)

5.3 Programs to Reduce Fault Rates

246

(1)

5.4 Outage Follow-Ups

247

(2)

5.5 Problem-Circuit Audits

249

(1)

5.6 Construction Upgrade Programs

250

(2)

5.7 Using Outage Databases

252

(5)

References

257

(4)

Index

261

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Distribution Reliability And Power Quality

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