Dopants and Defects in Semiconductors

by McCluskey; Matthew D.

• ISBN13: 9781439831526
• ISBN10: 1439831521
• Edition: 1st
• Format: Hardcover
• Copyright: 2012-02-23
• Publisher: CRC Press

Summary

Defects and dopants in semiconductors are important to solid-state technology and condensed matter physics. The ability to manipulate the conductivity of semiconductor materials through controlled doping has made them indispensable. This book provides a synthesis of the theory, experimental methods, and identification of impurities and intrinsic defects in semiconductors. It first presents introductory concepts and then focuses on electrical, optical, vibrational, and thermodynamic properties. The final section of the book covers characterization approaches, from measurement of electrical properties and optical spectroscopy to particle beam methods.

Table of Contents

Preface	p. xi
The Authors	p. xiii
Abbreviations	p. xv
List of Elements by Symbol	p. xix
Semiconductor Basics	p. 1
Historical Overview	p. 1
Crystal Structure	p. 4
Phonons	p. 8
Band Structure	p. 10
Electrons and Holes	p. 15
Optical Properties	p. 20
Electronic Transport	p. 22
Examples of Semiconductors	p. 24
Devices	p. 26
References	p. 30
Defect Classifications	p. 33
Structure and Symmetry	p. 33
Energy Levels	p. 37
Examples of Native Defects	p. 41
Examples of Nonhydrogenic Impurities	p. 43
Dislocations	p. 48
Metal-Semiconductor Junctions	p. 52
The Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Junction	p. 57
References	p. 59
Crystal Growth and Doping	p. 63
Bulk Crystal Growth	p. 63
Dopant Incorporation during Bulk Crystal Growth	p. 67
Thin Film Growth	p. 71
Liquid Phase Epitaxy (LPE)	p. 72
Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD)	p. 74
Molecular Beam Epitaxy (MBE)	p. 76
Alloying	p. 78
Doping by Diffusion	p. 81
Ion Implantation	p. 83
Annealing and Dopant Activation	p. 88
Neutron Transmutation	p. 92
References	p. 94
Electronic Properties	p. 97
Hydrogenic Model	p. 97
Wave Function Symmetry	p. 102
Donor and Acceptor Wave Functions	p. 106
Deep Levels	p. 109
Carrier Concentrations as a Function of Temperature	p. 114
Freeze-Out Curves	p. 118
Scattering Processes	p. 121
Hopping and Impurity Band Conduction	p. 125
Spintronics	p. 128
References	p. 129
Vibrational Properties	p. 131
Phonons	p. 131
Defect Vibrational Modes	p. 135
Infrared Absorption	p. 141
Interactions and Lifetimes	p. 143
Raman Scattering	p. 146
Wave Functions and Symmetry	p. 147
Oxygen in Silicon and Germanium	p. 150
Impurity Vibrational Modes in GaAs	p. 155
Hydrogen Vibrational Modes	p. 158
References	p. 160
Optical Properties	p. 163
Free-Carrier Absorption and Reflection	p. 163
Lattice Vibrations	p. 167
Dipole Transitions	p. 171
Band-Gap Absorption	p. 173
Carrier Dynamics	p. 178
Exciton and Donor-Acceptor Emission	p. 182
Isoelectronic Impurities	p. 187
Lattice Relaxation	p. 189
Transition Metals	p. 193
References	p. 195
Thermal Properties	p. 199
Defect Formation	p. 199
Charge State and Chemical Potential	p. 201
Diffusion	p. 206
Microscopic Mechanisms of Diffusion	p. 211
Self-Diffusion	p. 214
Dopant Diffusion	p. 218
Quantum-Well Intermixing	p. 223
References	p. 226
Electrical Measurements	p. 229
Resistivity and Conductivity	p. 229
Methods of Measuring Resistivity	p. 232
Hall Effect	p. 237
P-n and Schottky Junctions	p. 241
Capacitance-Voltage (C-V) Profiling	p. 243
Carrier Generation and Recombination	p. 246
Deep-Level Transient Spectroscopy (DLTS)	p. 248
Minority Carriers and Deep-Level Transient Spectroscopy	p. 252
Minority Carrier Lifetime	p. 254
Thermoelectric Effect	p. 256
References	p. 257
Optical Spectroscopy	p. 259
Absorption	p. 259
Emission	p. 262
Raman Spectroscopy	p. 265
Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) Spectroscopy	p. 269
Photoconductivity	p. 272
Time-Resolved Techniques	p. 274
Applied Stress	p. 276
Electron Paramagnetic Resonance (EPR)	p. 281
Optically Detected Magnetic Resonance	p. 285
Electron Nuclear Double Resonance (ENDOR)	p. 287
References	p. 290
Particle-Beam Methods	p. 293
Rutherford Backscattering Spectrometry (RBS)	p. 293
Ion Range	p. 298
Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry (SIMS)	p. 302
X-Ray Emission	p. 303
X-Ray Absorption	p. 305
Photoelectric Effect	p. 307
Electron Beams	p. 309
Positron Annihilation	p. 312
Muons	p. 314
Perturbed Angular Correlation Spectroscopy (PACS)	p. 317
Nuclear Reactions	p. 319
References	p. 320
Microscopy and Structural Characterization	p. 323
Optical Microscopy	p. 323
Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM)	p. 328
Cathodoluminescence (CL)	p. 332
Electron Beam Induced Current Microscopy	p. 335
Diffraction	p. 337
Transmission Electron Microscopy	p. 339
Scanning Probe Microscopy	p. 342
References	p. 346
Physical Constants	p. 349
Index	p. 351
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