Dry Skin and Moisturizers: Chemistry and Function

by Maibach; Howard I.

• ISBN13: 9780849321344
• ISBN10: 0849321344
• Edition: 2nd
• Format: Hardcover
• Copyright: 2005-11-09
• Publisher: CRC Press

Summary

The previous edition of Dry Skin and Moisturizers: Chemistry and Function was the first book devoted to all aspects of moisturizers, a subject often given short shrift in dermatology texts. It quickly became a standard reference. In the past five years, there has been an explosion of new information relating to the nature of dry skin and its treatment. With more than 350 scientific papers on dry skin published in the last five years, the advances in the field have been nothing short of stunning. Completely revised and updated, this second edition presents the most recent research findings and contains highly relevant information for future possibilities to scientifically tailor efficient products for dry skin.The book focuses on constituents in moisturizing creams and pharmaceutical preparations and their effects on dry skin disorders. It covers regulatory and safety issues and includes pertinent information from neighboring research areas. With contributions from internationally recognized, world-class scientists, the book comprehensively summarizes current knowledge from basic science to clinical practice. The combination of detailed information about the skin with in depth coverage of moisturizers makes this book a one of a kind resource.

Table of Contents

Introduction: Perspectives and Prospects	1	(5)
Albert Kligman
I The Skin	5	(140)
Biochemistry and Function	7	(2)
The Skin as a Barrier	9	(14)
Magnus Lindberg
Bo Forslind
Introduction	9	(1)
The Corneocytes Constitute a Scaffold for the Barrier Lipids	10	(1)
Corneocyte Structure	11	(1)
The Hydrophilic and the Hydrophobic Pathways through the Skin Barrier	12	(1)
The Physical State of the Lipids Determines the Properties of a Lipid Membrane or Barrier	13	(1)
The Ceramides of the Human Skin Barrier	14	(1)
Free Fatty Acids and Cholesterol	15	(1)
Lipid Gradients within Stratum Corneum	15	(1)
Structure of Stratum Corneum --- Barrier Models	15	(2)
The Brick and Mortar Model	15	(1)
The Domain Mosaic Model	15	(2)
The Single Gel Model and the Sandwich Model	17	(1)
Properties of the Lamellar Barrier --- Effects of Penetration Enhancers	17	(1)
Conclusions --- Barrier Penetration in a Functional Perspective	17	(6)
References	18	(5)
Epidermal Lipids and Formation of the Barrier of the Skin	23	(8)
Philip W. Wertz
Lipids in the Epidermis	23	(3)
Introduction	23	(2)
Carbon Sources	25	(1)
Energy Production	26	(1)
Major Biosynthetic Pathways	26	(1)
Lamellar Granules	26	(1)
Catabolism	27	(1)
Composition	27	(4)
References	28	(3)
Lipid Structures in the Permeability Barrier	31	(12)
Lars Norlen
Introduction	31	(2)
Lipids and Lipid Organization	33	(4)
Lipid Classification	33	(1)
Lipid Self-Assembly	33	(1)
Lipid Phase Behavior	34	(1)
Solid State	34	(1)
Liquid State	35	(1)
Liquid Crystalline State	35	(1)
Liquid Crystalline Lipid/Water Phases with Cubic Symmetry	36	(1)
Cryo-Transmission Electron Microscopy of Vitreous Skin Sections	37	(2)
Lipid Organization of the Stratum Corneum Intercellular Space --- A Single and Coherent Multilamellar ``DRM''B?	39	(4)
References	40	(3)
Particle Probes and Skin Physiology	43	(20)
Jan Pallon
Bo Forslind
Magnus Lindberg
Introduction	44	(1)
The Beginning --- Quantitative Microradiography	44	(1)
Inert Preparation --- Cryo-Methods for Elemental Analysis of Tissue Samples	45	(1)
Energy Dispersive X-Ray Microanalysis in the Electron Microscope	45	(2)
Proton Probe Analysis	47	(1)
Detection of the X-Ray Signal	48	(1)
Comparisons between Electron and Proton Probes	49	(4)
Sensitivity	49	(2)
Spatial Resolution	51	(2)
Limitations of PIXE Analysis	53	(1)
Elemental Mapping	53	(1)
Pixel Maps Provide Information on the Dynamics of Tissue Activity	53	(1)
Multivariate Analysis Identifies Co-Variations of Elements and Strata	53	(1)
Trace Element Analysis is Possible with the Proton Probes	54	(2)
The Ca2+ Signal	54	(1)
Ca2+ and Programmed Cell Death or Apoptosis	54	(1)
Iron and Zinc	55	(1)
Mass and Elemental Distributions of the Epidermis --- PIXE Data	55	(1)
Recycling of Diffusible Ions	55	(1)
Local Variations of Element and Trace Element Distributions	55	(1)
Horizontal Elemental Distributions	56	(1)
Electron and Proton Probe Data from Pathological Skin	56	(2)
Psoriasis	56	(1)
Elemental Distributions in Different Strata of Psoriatic Normal-Looking Skin --- Horizontal Scans	57	(1)
Metal Allergy	57	(1)
Irritant Contact Dermatitis and Effects on the Keratinocytes --- EMP Data	57	(1)
Multidimensional Statistical Analysis Using SIMCA	58	(1)
Summary and Conclusions	58	(5)
References	59	(4)
Role of Calcium Ions in the Regulation of Skin Barrier Homeostasis	63	(8)
Hanafi Tanojo
Xinfan Huang
Howard I. Maibach
Introduction	63	(1)
Mechanism of Calcium Cell Signaling	63	(2)
Regulation of Calcium	65	(1)
Calcium Gradient	66	(1)
Calcium and Barrier Repair Mechanism	67	(1)
Conclusion	68	(3)
References	68	(3)
Desquamation	71	(12)
Torbjorn Egelrud
Introduction	71	(1)
Skin Diseases with Desquamation Disturbances	72	(1)
Stratum Corneum Cell Dissociation Involves Proteolysis	73	(1)
Desmosomes and Corneodesmosomes	73	(1)
Desquamation Involves Degradation of Corneodesmosomes	74	(1)
Enzymes Involved in Desquamation	75	(1)
Regulation of Desquamation	76	(1)
Conclusion	77	(4)
References	77	(4)
Dry Skin and Hyperkeratotic Conditions	81	(2)
Ichthyosis --- An Inborn Dryness and Scaliness of the Skin	83	(12)
Anders Vahlquist
Introduction	83	(1)
The Common Types of Ichthyosis	84	(1)
Biochemical Differences of the Horny Layer in IV and XRI	85	(1)
Treatment of Common Ichthyosis	86	(1)
Rarer Forms of Ichthyosis	87	(1)
Treatment of Lamellar Ichthyosis	88	(2)
Bullous Ichthyosis, A Keratin Disorder	90	(2)
Ichthyosiforme Syndromes and Other Rare Ichthyosis-Like Conditions	92	(1)
Conclusions and Prospects for the Future	92	(3)
References	92	(3)
Dry Skin in Atopic Dermatitis and Patients on Hemodialysis	95	(12)
Motoji Takahashi
Zenro Ikezawa
Summary	95	(1)
Introduction	96	(1)
Subjects and Methods	96	(1)
Subjects	96	(1)
Skin Regions and Timing for Measurements	96	(1)
Measurements	97	(1)
Water Content in Stratum Corneum	97	(1)
Transepidermal Water Loss	97	(1)
Skin Surface pH	97	(1)
Parakeratotic Index of Stratum Corneum	97	(1)
Free Amino Acid in Stratum Corneum	97	(1)
Ceramides in Stratum Corneum	98	(1)
Results	98	(5)
Water Content in Stratum Corneum	98	(1)
Transepidermal Water Loss	99	(1)
Skin Surface pH	99	(1)
Parakeratotic Cells in Stratum Corneum	99	(1)
Free Amino Acid Content in Stratum Corneum	99	(3)
Ceramide Levels in Stratum Corneum	102	(1)
Characteristics of Stratum Corneum in Various Types of Dry Skin	103	(1)
Discussion	103	(4)
References	105	(2)
Experimentally Induced Dry Skin	107	(10)
Mitsuhiro Denda
Introduction	107	(1)
Experimentally Induced Dry Skin	107	(4)
Dry, Scaly Skin Induced by Barrier Disruption	107	(3)
Dry, Scaly Skin Induced by an Occlusive Surfactant Dressing	110	(1)
Dry, Scaly Skin Induced by Dry Environment	111	(1)
New Strategies to Improve Dry Skin	111	(2)
Protease Inhibitor	111	(1)
Nuclear Hormone Receptor Activator	112	(1)
Histamine Receptor Antagonist	112	(1)
Regulation of Receptors of Neurotransmitters in the Keratinocytes	112	(1)
Thinking Epidermis: Sensor Devices in the Epidermis	113	(1)
Conclusion	113	(4)
References	114	(3)
Dryness in Chronologically and Photo-Aged Skin	117	(10)
Ehrhardt Proksch
Introduction	117	(1)
Skin Aging	118	(1)
Biophysical Measurements in Aged Dry Skin	119	(1)
Light and Electron Microscopy Studies in Aged Dry Skin	119	(1)
Epidermal Differentiation in Dry and Aged Dry Skin	120	(1)
Amino Acids and Filaggrin in Dry and Aged Dry Skin	120	(1)
Urea and Glycerol in Aged Dry Skin	121	(1)
Epidermal Lipids in Aged Dry Skin	121	(1)
Sebaceous Lipids in Dry and Aged Dry Skin	122	(1)
Bathing and Cleansing in Dry and Aged Dry Skin	122	(1)
Therapy of Aged Dry Skin	123	(1)
Summary	124	(3)
References	124	(3)
Itch Associated with Dryness of the Skin: the Pathophysiology and Influence of Moisturizers	127	(8)
Brett T. Summey Jr.
Gil Yosipovitch
Introduction	127	(1)
Specific Primary Conditions with Barrier Malfunction and Itch	128	(1)
Atopic Dermatitis	128	(1)
Senile Xerosis	128	(1)
Dry Skin and Uremic Itch	128	(1)
Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) Infection and Xerosis	129	(1)
Pathophysiology of Itch in Xeroderma	129	(1)
Cross-Talk Between Stratum Corneum and Nervous System --- a Possible Mechanism	129	(1)
The Role of Moisturizers in Itch and Dry Skin	130	(1)
Conclusion	131	(4)
References	131	(4)
Effects of Moisturizer in Psoriasis	135	(10)
Joachim W. Fluhr
Maria Breternitz
Enzo Berardesca
Introduction	135	(1)
Effects of Moisturizer and Keratolytical Agents in Psoriasis	136	(3)
Salicylic Acid	136	(1)
Urea	137	(1)
Alpha-Hydroxy Acids	138	(1)
ω-Fatty Acids and Psoriasis	139	(1)
Emollients in Psoriasis	139	(1)
Summary	140	(5)
References	140	(5)
II Formulations	145	(284)
Interactions with the Skin	147	(2)
Moisturizers as a Medical, Biological, Psychological, Cultural, and Economic Factor	149	(6)
Gregor B.E. Jemec
Moisturizers as Medicine	149	(1)
What can we Learn from the Placebo Arm in RCTs?	149	(1)
Moisturizers as Preventive Measures and Adjunct Therapy	150	(1)
The Biological Effects of Moisturizers	150	(1)
The Psychology of Moisturizers	151	(1)
Moisturizers as Culture	151	(1)
Moisturizers as Consumer Goods	152	(1)
Conclusion	152	(3)
References	152	(3)
New Methodology to Improve Epidermal Barrier Homeostasis	155	(6)
Mitsuhiro Denda
Summary	155	(1)
Neurotransmitter Receptors on Keratinocytes	155	(1)
Materials that Induce Electric Potential on the Skin Surface	156	(5)
Ionic Polymers8	157	(1)
Barium Sulfate9	157	(1)
References	158	(3)
Outside and Inside Skin pH	161	(10)
Izabela Buraczewska
Introduction	161	(1)
Applicability of the Term ``Skin pH''	161	(1)
Measurement Methods	162	(1)
Formation of the pH-Gradient	163	(1)
Outside Skin pH	163	(1)
Inside Skin pH	164	(1)
Function and Importance of Skin pH	164	(1)
Skin Disorders and pH	164	(1)
Moisturizers, Other Cosmetic Products, and Skin pH	165	(1)
pH of Cosmetic Products	165	(1)
Impact of Stay-On Products on Skin pH	165	(1)
Rinse-Off Products and their pH	166	(1)
Summary	166	(5)
Acknowledgments	167	(1)
References	167	(4)
Dry Skin and Use of Proteases	171	(16)
A. V. Rawlings
R. Lad
Introduction	171	(1)
Stratum Corneum Corneodesmosomes, Corneodesmolysis, and Desquamation	171	(3)
The Pathophysiology of Winter-Induced Dry Skin	174	(2)
The Effect of Topically Applied Proteases	176	(8)
Final Comments and Future Prospects	184	(3)
References	184	(3)
Effects of Natural Moisturizing Factor and Lactic Acid Isomers on Skin Function	187	(24)
Clive R. Harding
Anthony V. Rawlings
Introduction	187	(2)
Natural Moisturizing Factor	189	(9)
The Role of the NMF in the Stratum Corneum	189	(2)
The Origin of the Skin's NMF	191	(1)
Synthesis and Degradation of Profilaggrin	192	(1)
Control of Filaggrin Hydrolysis	192	(2)
NMF Levels and Dry Skin Conditions	194	(4)
The Effect of Topically Applied NMF	198	(3)
Pyrrolidone Carboxylic Acid	198	(1)
Urea	198	(1)
Lactic Acid	198	(2)
Saccharide Isomerates	200	(1)
Glycerol	200	(1)
Enhancing Profilaggrin Synthesis	201	(3)
Peroxisome Proliferator Activated Receptor	203	(1)
Liver X-Receptor and Farnesol X-Receptor	204	(1)
Final Comments	204	(7)
References	204	(7)
Clinical Evidence for the Use of Urea	211	(16)
Marie Loden
Introduction	211	(1)
Chemistry and Behavior	212	(1)
Clinical Studies on Urea-Containing Moisturizers	213	(4)
Psoriasis	213	(1)
Ichthyosis	213	(1)
Atopic Dermatitis	214	(1)
Hand Dermatitis	215	(1)
Other Conditions	215	(1)
Combinations with Corticosteroids	216	(1)
Effects of Urea on the Skin Barrier Function	217	(2)
Normal Skin	218	(1)
Diseased Skin	218	(1)
Side Effects	219	(1)
Discussion	220	(2)
Conclusion	222	(5)
References	222	(5)
Glycerol --- Just a Moisturizer? Biological and Biophysical Effects	227	(18)
Joachim W. Fluhr
Anja Bornkessel
Enzo Berardesca
Introduction	228	(1)
Glycerol	228	(1)
Dry Skin	228	(1)
Skin Moisturization	229	(2)
Glycerol and Skin Moisturization	229	(1)
Glycerol and Skin Hydration	230	(1)
Glycerol and Hygroscopicity	230	(1)
Gylcerol and Evaporation	230	(1)
Prevention of the SC Phase Transition	231	(1)
Skin Barrier Organization --- Role of Lipids	231	(1)
Glycerol and SC Phase Transition	231	(1)
Keratolytic Effect by Desmosome Degradation	231	(1)
Desmosomal Degradation	231	(1)
Glycerol and Desmosomal Degradation	232	(1)
Protection Against Irritation	232	(2)
Protection against Irritation	232	(1)
Penetration Enhancing Effect of Glycerol	233	(1)
Accelerating the Healing Processes	233	(1)
Protection against X-ray and 365 nm Ultraviolet Light	234	(1)
Influence on Physical Properties of the Skin	234	(1)
Mechanical Properties of the Skin --- the Role of the Epidermis	234	(1)
Plasticizing and Smoothing Effect of Glycerol	234	(1)
Reduction of Tissue Scattering	235	(1)
Stabilization of Collagen	235	(1)
New Aspects in Research	235	(4)
Aquaporin-3	235	(1)
Sebaceous Glands and Glycerol	236	(1)
Glycerol and Corneocyte Surface Area	236	(2)
Glycerol Concentrations and Formulations	238	(1)
Virucidal Effect	239	(1)
Summary	239	(6)
References	240	(5)
Hyaluronan: Key to Skin Moisture	245	(34)
Robert Stern
Introduction	246	(1)
Historical Perspective	246	(1)
Biology of Hyaluronan	247	(5)
Structure	247	(1)
Function	248	(2)
Embryonic Development	250	(1)
Hyaluronan Oligomers Have Size-Specific Activities	251	(1)
Wound Healing	251	(1)
Malignancy	252	(1)
Hyaladherins and Receptors	252	(2)
Hyaladherins	252	(1)
CD44	252	(1)
RHAMM	253	(1)
Strategies and Challenges	253	(1)
Hyaluronan and Skin	254	(3)
General Observations	254	(1)
Epidermal Hyaluronan	254	(1)
Dermal Hyaluronan	255	(1)
Changes in Hyaluronan with Aging	255	(1)
Skin Pathology Involving Hyaluronan	256	(1)
Photo-Aging	256	(1)
Oxidative Stress	256	(1)
Inflammation	257	(1)
Hyaluronan Metabolism	257	(6)
Hyaluronan Synthases	257	(1)
Hyaluronidases	258	(1)
Hyaluronidase Inhibitors	259	(1)
Macromolecular Inhibitors	259	(1)
Low Molecular Weight Inhibitors	260	(1)
Nonenzymatic Degradation	260	(1)
A Scheme for Hyaluronan Metabolism	261	(1)
The Hyluronasome, A New Mini-Organelle	262	(1)
Modulating Hyaluronan Deposition	263	(3)
The Lactate Effect	263	(1)
Alpha-Hydroxy Acids	264	(1)
Vitamin C	264	(1)
Vitamin A	265	(1)
Vitamin E	265	(1)
Vitamin D	265	(1)
Steroids	265	(1)
Dermatologic and Cosmetic Perspectives	266	(1)
Future Perspectives	267	(12)
References	267	(12)
Hydrophilic Pastes	279	(10)
Bernard Gabard
Christian Surber
Introduction	279	(1)
Material and Methods	279	(2)
Test Products	279	(1)
Methods	280	(1)
Results and Discussion	281	(4)
Conclusion	285	(4)
References	286	(3)
Petrolatum	289	(10)
David S. Morrison
Introduction	289	(1)
Skin Moisturization by Petrolatum Alone	290	(2)
Skin Moisturization --- Petrolatum in Cosmetic Compositions	292	(1)
Skin Moisturization --- Petrolatum in Dermatological Applications	292	(2)
Patch Testing	293	(1)
Drug Delivery	293	(1)
Treatment Products	293	(1)
Skin Moisturization --- Petrolatum in Paper and Related Products	294	(1)
Conclusion	294	(5)
References	295	(4)
Phospholipids, Metabolites, and Skin Hydration	299	(10)
Miklos Ghyczy
Martin Albrecht
Vladimir Vacata
Introduction to Phospholipids and Phosphatidylcholines	300	(1)
Epidermal Differentiation Process of the Lipid Bilayer: from Epidermis to Stratum Corneum	300	(1)
Epidermal Biochemical Differentiation: Phospholipids to Metabolites	300	(1)
Biological Efficacy of Phospholipid Metabolites	301	(1)
Topical Application of Phosphatidylcholine	302	(1)
Phosphatidylcholine as an Active Drug Substance and as a Structure-Forming ``Inert'' Excipient	302	(1)
Effects of the Topical Application of Fluid-State Phosphatidylcholine	303	(1)
Effects of Fluid-State PC Matrix Loaded with Substances	303	(1)
Effects of Topical Application of Gel-State PCs	304	(1)
Uptake and Tolerance Gel-State PCs	304	(1)
Effects of the Topical Application of a Gel-State PC Matrix Loaded with Substances	304	(2)
Effects of the Topical Application of Gel-State PC Matrix Loaded with Phospholipid Metabolites	306	(1)
Discussion	306	(3)
References	307	(2)
Lanolins	309	(10)
Ian Harris
Udo Hoppe
Introduction	309	(1)
Purification of Lanolin (Wool Wax)	309	(1)
Composition of Lanolin	310	(1)
Comparison of Lanolin to Sebum and Stratum Corneum Lipids	311	(1)
Lanolin as a Moisturizer	311	(3)
Lanolin as an Emulsifier and a Vehicle for Drug Delivery	314	(1)
Lanolin Derivatives	314	(5)
References	315	(4)
Essential Fatty Acids: Biological Functions and Potential Applications in the Skin	319	(22)
Lesley Elizabeth Rhodes
Amy Storey
Introduction	319	(1)
Classification and Nomenclature	320	(1)
Dietary Sources	320	(1)
The EFA Content of Skin	321	(1)
Metabolism of EFA	321	(1)
Functions of EFA in the Skin	322	(4)
Cutaneous Barrier Function	322	(1)
Production of Eicosanoids	322	(2)
Modulation of Cell Signaling	324	(1)
Modulation of Gene Expression	325	(1)
Modulation of Immune Function	325	(1)
Modulation of Oxidative Stress	326	(1)
Modulation of Apoptosis	326	(1)
EFA in Clinical Dermatology	326	(3)
Photodermatology and Skin Cancer	326	(1)
Atopic Dermatitis	327	(1)
Psoriasis	328	(1)
Acne Vulgaris	329	(1)
Wound Healing	329	(1)
Conjugated Linoleic Acid	329	(1)
EFA Status in the Modulation of Cutaneous Responses	329	(12)
References	330	(11)
Sphingolipids: from Chemistry to Possible Biologic Influence on the Skin	341	(10)
Hisashi Wakita
Chemistry of Sphingolipids: Overview	341	(1)
Chemistry of Sphingolipids in the Skin	342	(1)
Free Long-Chain Bases	342	(1)
Glycosphingolipids	343	(1)
Epidermosides	343	(1)
Gangliosides	343	(1)
Possible Influence of Sphingolipids on the Skin	343	(8)
Free Long-Chain Bases	344	(1)
Glycosphingolipids	344	(1)
Epidermosides	344	(1)
Gangliosides	345	(1)
Acidic Phospholipid Autacoid	345	(1)
References	346	(5)
Effect of Moisturizers on the Structure of Lipids in the Outer Stratum Corneum of Humans	351	(24)
Keith D. Ertel
Ronald R. Warner
Ying L. Boissy
Introduction	351	(2)
Inner Stratum Corneum Lipids	352	(1)
Outer Stratum Corneum Lipids	352	(1)
Tape Strip Protocol	353	(1)
Normal Lipid Structure of the Outer Stratum Corneum	354	(1)
Young Skin	354	(1)
Old Skin	354	(1)
The Effect of Surfactant-Based Cleansers	355	(1)
The Effect of Moisturizers	356	(10)
Mineral Oil	358	(1)
Petrolatum	359	(1)
Neat Petrolatum	359	(1)
Formulated Petrolatum	360	(1)
Sucrose Esters of Fatty Acids	360	(1)
Neat SEFA	360	(1)
Formulated SEFA	360	(1)
Product Comparisons from Clinical Studies	361	(1)
Neat Petrolatum versus Neat SEFA versus Glycerin-Based Moisturizing Lotion	361	(5)
Moisturizing Body Wash versus Synthetic Bar + Glycerin-Based Moisturizing Lotion	366	(1)
Conclusions	366	(9)
References	370	(5)
Vitamins and Skin	375	(16)
Krautheim A.
Gollnick H.P.M.
Introduction	375	(1)
Antioxidant Vitamins C (Ascorbic Acid) and E (Tocopherol)	376	(4)
Vitamin C	377	(1)
Vitamin E	378	(2)
Vitamin A (Retinol), Retinoids (Vitamin A Derivatives), and Carotenoids	380	(1)
Vitamin A and Retinoids	381	(1)
Carotenoids	381	(1)
Vitamin D (Calciferol)	381	(1)
Vitamin B-Complex and Vitamin K	382	(2)
Vitamin B-Complex	382	(1)
Thiamin (Vitamin B1)	382	(1)
Riboflavin (Vitamin B2)	382	(1)
Nicotinic Acid (Niacin)	383	(1)
Pyridoxine (Vitamin B6)	383	(1)
Cyanocobalamin (Vitamin B12)	383	(1)
Folic Acid	383	(1)
Pantothenic Acid	384	(1)
Biotin (Vitamin H)	384	(1)
Vitamin K	384	(1)
Conclusion	384	(7)
References	385	(6)
Antimicrobials	391	(14)
Anke Gauger
Introduction	391	(1)
Composition and Function of Antimicrobials	392	(4)
Antiseptics	392	(2)
Antibiotics	394	(1)
Topical Antibiotics	394	(1)
Systemic Antibiotics	395	(1)
Effects of Antimicrobials on the Skin Barrier Function	396	(3)
Intact Skin	396	(1)
Antiseptics	396	(1)
Antibiotics	397	(1)
Atopic Dermatitis	397	(1)
Antiseptics	397	(1)
Antibiotics	398	(1)
Conclusion	399	(6)
References	400	(5)
Moisturizing Cleansers	405	(24)
K.P. Ananthapadmanabhan
K. Subramanyan
Greg Nole
Introduction	405	(1)
The Importance of Moisturization	406	(2)
Hydration of the Stratum Corneum	406	(1)
Impact of Cleansing on Skin Hydration	406	(1)
Consumer Perception	407	(1)
Effect of Surfactants on SC	408	(6)
Immediate (Short-Term) Effects of Surfactants	410	(1)
Effects on Proteins	410	(1)
Effects on Lipids	411	(1)
Manifestation of the Short-Term Effects on Proteins, Lipids, and NMFs	412	(1)
Cumulative (Longer Term) Effects of Repeated Exposure to Surfactants	412	(1)
Dryness, Scaling, and Flaking	413	(1)
Erythema and Itch	414	(1)
Mild and Moisturizing Cleanser Technologies	414	(5)
Minimizing Surfactant Protein Damage	415	(1)
Minimizing Surfactant Lipid Damage	416	(2)
Compensating for Damage: Enhancing Moisturization	418	(1)
Measuring Moisturization from Cleansers	419	(6)
Evaluating Moisturization of Skin	419	(1)
Measuring the Effect of Cleansers on Skin	420	(1)
Short-Term Effects	420	(1)
Long-Term Effects	421	(1)
Advanced Moisturization Measures	422	(3)
Conclusion	425	(4)
References	426	(3)
III Skin Measurements	429	(56)
Tribological Studies on Skin: Measurement of the Coefficient of Friction	431	(12)
Raja K. Sivamani
Gabriel, W.u.
Norm V. Gitis
Howard I. Maibach
Introduction	431	(3)
Experimental Designs	432	(1)
Hydration	433	(1)
Lubricants/Emollients/Moisturizers	433	(1)
Probes	433	(1)
Normal Load	433	(1)
Skin Friction Coefficient Values	434	(6)
Hydration	434	(2)
Lubricants/Emollients/Moisturizers	436	(1)
Lubricant Oils	436	(1)
Emollients and Moisturizers	436	(2)
Probes	438	(1)
Anatomic Region, Age, Gender, and Race	438	(2)
Conclusion	440	(3)
References	440	(3)
Smoothness of the Skin, Complexity, and Instrumental Approach	443	(8)
Jean Luc Leveque
Introduction	443	(1)
Mechanisms Involved	443	(1)
Friction Measurements	444	(2)
Piezo-Electric Detection of the Contact: the ``Haptic Finger''	446	(1)
Cognitive Approach	447	(1)
Conclusion	448	(3)
References	449	(2)
Assessment of Skin Moisturization with Electrical Methods	451	(6)
Enzo Berardesca
Introduction	451	(1)
Sources of Error and Associated Variables	452	(2)
Instrument-Related Variables	452	(1)
Start-Up and Use	452	(1)
Use of the Probe Protection Covers	452	(1)
Instrumental Variability	452	(1)
Environment-Related Variables	453	(1)
Ambient Air Temperature and Humidity	453	(1)
Individual-Related Variables	453	(1)
Anatomical Sites	453	(1)
Age and Sex	453	(1)
Skin Surface Temperature	454	(1)
Sweating	454	(1)
Conclusion	454	(3)
References	454	(3)
Stratum Corneum Tape Stripping: Relationship with Dry Skin and Moisturizers	457	(8)
Frank Dreher
Howard I. Maibach
Introduction	457	(1)
Tape Stripping Technique	458	(3)
Experimental Procedure	458	(1)
Technical Recommendations	458	(1)
Removal of Residual Product	458	(1)
Amount of SC Removed	458	(1)
Dissimilar Removal	459	(1)
Time of Tape Stripping Procedure	459	(1)
Estimation of SC Amount Removed by Tape Stripping	459	(1)
Gravimetric Method	460	(1)
Colorimetric Methods Based on Protein Determination	460	(1)
Spectroscopic Methods	460	(1)
Tape Stripping in Dermatopharmacokinetic Studies	461	(1)
Tape Stripping for Measuring SC Cohesion	462	(1)
Summary and Conclusion	462	(3)
References	462	(3)
XLRS Squamometry Revisited	465	(10)
Emmanuelle Uhoda
Claudine Pierard-Franchimont
G.E. Pierard
Xerosis Assessment and Sampling	466	(1)
SACD and Scaliness	466	(2)
Squamometry X	468	(1)
Squamometry L	468	(1)
Squamometry R	468	(1)
Squamometry S	468	(1)
Conclusion	469	(6)
References	470	(5)
Methods for Testing Stratum Corneum Barrier Properties	475	(10)
Ludger Kolbe
Soeren Jaspers
Introduction	475	(1)
Techniques	476	(2)
Transepidermal Water Loss	476	(1)
Sodium Hydroxide Erosion Assay	477	(1)
Dimethyl Sulphoxide (DMSO) Whealing Test	478	(1)
Sodium Lauryl Sulfate (SLS) Irritation	478	(1)
Data	478	(4)
Xerotic Leg Skin	478	(1)
Erosion Assay	478	(1)
DMSO Reaction	479	(1)
Normal Volar Forearm Skin	480	(1)
SLS Irritation	481	(1)
TEWL	482	(1)
Conclusion	482	(3)
References	483	(2)
IV Skin Reactions	485	(46)
Sensitive Skin	487	(14)
Heather L. Daughters
Ai-Lean Chew
Howard I. Maibach
Introduction: Definition of Sensitive Skin	487	(1)
Epidemiology	488	(1)
Symptomatology	489	(1)
Classification and Etiology	489	(4)
Exogenous Causes	489	(1)
Subjective Irritation	489	(1)
Objective Irritation and Nonerythematous Irritation	490	(1)
Allergic Contact Dermatitis	491	(1)
Contact Urticaria Syndrome	491	(1)
Photosensitivity Reactions	492	(1)
Endogenous Causes	492	(1)
Dermatologic Nondisease	493	(1)
Diagnostic Tests for Sensitive Skin	493	(1)
Objective Methods	493	(1)
Subjective Methods	494	(1)
Pathophysiology	494	(1)
Skin Bioengineering and Sensitive Skin	495	(1)
Management Options	496	(1)
Hypoallergenicity	497	(1)
Antiirritants	497	(1)
Summary	497	(4)
References	498	(3)
Stinging and Irritating Substances: Their Identification and Assessment	501	(14)
Karen Cooper
Marie Marriott
Lisa Peters
David Basketter
Introduction	501	(1)
Regulatory Requirements for Toxicological Testing	502	(1)
Sources of Skin Irritation Data	502	(2)
In Silico Models	503	(1)
In Vitro Methodologies	503	(1)
Human Volunteer Tests	504	(3)
Acute Skin Irritation	504	(1)
Cumulative Skin Irritation	505	(1)
Sensory Irritation	506	(1)
Practicalities Associated with Human Volunteer Testing	507	(1)
Study Design	507	(1)
Description of Study/Informed Consent	507	(1)
Panel Selection	508	(1)
Assessment of Skin Irritation	508	(3)
Visual Assessment	508	(1)
Bioengineering Equipment	508	(2)
Evaporimeter	510	(1)
Colorimeter/Erythema Meter	510	(1)
Capacitance	510	(1)
Laser Doppler Perfusion Imaging	510	(1)
Interpretation of Results/Evaluation	510	(1)
Considerations for Statistical Analysis	511	(1)
Other Factors that can Impact on Skin Irritation	511	(1)
Irritation Testing Strategy	511	(1)
Risk Assessment	512	(3)
References	512	(3)
Sensitizing Substances	515	(8)
A.E. Goossens
Introduction	515	(1)
The Nature of Cosmetic Allergens in Moisturizers	515	(3)
Fragrance Ingredients	515	(1)
Preservatives	516	(1)
Excipients, Emulsifiers, and Humectants	516	(1)
Antioxidants	517	(1)
Natural Ingredients	518	(1)
Sunscreens	518	(1)
Identifying Sensitizing Substances in Moisturizers	518	(5)
References	519	(4)
Regulatory Aspects on Safety	523	(8)
Monica Tammela
Introduction	523	(1)
Different Types of Ingredients	524	(1)
Toxicological Requirements on Ingredients	524	(2)
Acute Toxicity	525	(1)
Irritation and Corrositivity	525	(1)
Skin Sensitization	525	(1)
Dermal/Percutaneous Absorption	525	(1)
Repeated Dose Toxicity	526	(1)
Mutagenicity/Genotoxicity	526	(1)
Carcinogenicity	526	(1)
Reproductive Toxicity	526	(1)
Toxicokinetic Studies	526	(1)
Photo-Induced Toxicity	526	(1)
Human Data	526	(1)
Sources of Toxicological Information	526	(1)
Methods	527	(1)
Safety Evaluation of Products	527	(1)
Additional Toxicological Aspects	528	(3)
Contaminants	528	(1)
Formation of New Substances	528	(1)
References	528	(3)
Index	531