This book is about the management of forest pests. It focuses predominantly on insect pests, but many examples relate to fungal pathogens, some of which are vectored by forest insects. The central theme of the book is the development of Integrated Pest Management (IPM), the main impetus for which comes from the need to use environmentally sensitive methods of control appropriate to both semi-natural and plantation forests. Such forests are likely to be managed not only for timber production but also for recreation and to enhance biodiversity. An introductory chapter describes how forests have been transformed by exploitation and management and how altering the composition and distribution of forests can contribute to pest problems. Subsequent chapters focus on the 'techniques' of management and control that contribute to IPM, considering in turn plant health, risk-rating, silviculture, tree resistance, biological control, microbial control and semiochemicals. By focusing on these important elements of management, the aim is to provide a critical analysis of the theory and practice of each one in relation to key aspects of both pest and forest ecology. The final chapter on IPM brings together elements of the previous chapters, discussing them in the context of the economic and environmental impact of pests, the economics of control, and the role of decision support systems. Detailed case studies are provided and future developments in IPM discussed in relation to sustainability, conservation and the potential impact of climate change.

Acknowledgements for reproduction of figures

xi

Forests and pest management

1

(15)

Natural and managed forests

1

(4)

Pests and pathogens in natural and managed forests

5

(8)

Management and exploitation of natural and semi-natural forests

6

(2)

Management of plantation forests

8

(1)

Species and species selection

8

(2)

Sites and site selection

10

(1)

Tree improvement and clonal forestry

11

(2)

Forests and the management of pests and pathogens

13

(3)

Plant health

16

(24)

International movement of pests and pathogens

16

(2)

The ecology of invasions

18

(4)

Arrival

19

(1)

Establishment

20

(1)

Spread

20

(2)

Plant health: the organisational framework

22

(1)

Plant health in practice

23

(7)

Quarantine pests

23

(1)

Quarantine material

24

(1)

Pest Risk Analysis

24

(2)

Certification and inspection

26

(4)

Quarantine treatments

30

(1)

Managing introduced pests

30

(6)

Detection and survey

30

(2)

Containment and eradication

32

(4)

Plant health and the emergence of new pests and pathogens

36

(4)

Risk, monitoring and prediction

40

(23)

Defining risk

40

(1)

Pest ecology and risk assessment

41

(1)

Quantifying risk

42

(9)

Outbreak history

43

(2)

Forest composition and structure

45

(1)

Site and environmental factors

46

(1)

Growth, vigour and complex indices

47

(4)

Monitoring and prediction

51

(12)

Mapping the distribution and intensity of damage

52

(2)

Sampling populations

54

(5)

Spread of pests and pathogens

59

(1)

Phenology and development

60

(3)

The role of silviculture

63

(19)

Planting and establishment

65

(2)

Managing established forests

67

(8)

Thinning and pruning

68

(1)

Microclimate, resources and biotic interactions

69

(2)

Tree density, growth rate and vigour

71

(1)

Species composition

72

(1)

Fertilisation

72

(2)

Fire

74

(1)

Felling and post-harvest

75

(2)

Salvage and long-term storage

77

(5)

Resistance to attack by pests and pathogens

82

(27)

Defence and defence theory

82

(2)

Resistance and its expression

84

(1)

Genetics of resistance

85

(2)

Major gene resistance

85

(1)

Polygenic resistance

86

(1)

Resistance mechanisms

87

(5)

Preformed resistance

88

(1)

Leaves

88

(1)

Bark and wood

89

(1)

Induced resistance

90

(1)

Leaves

90

(1)

Bark and wood

90

(1)

Whole tree responses

91

(1)

Tolerance

92

(1)

Integrated resistance

92

(1)

Environmental effects

92

(1)

Measuring resistance

92

(5)

Tree resistance and pest management

97

(8)

Exploiting natural variation in resistance

98

(1)

Inter-specific variation and hybridisation

98

(2)

Intra-specific variation

100

(1)

Individual trees

100

(3)

Breeding for resistance

103

(2)

Genetic modification

105

(2)

Resistance management

107

(2)

Biological control

109

(18)

Augmentation and conservation

110

(2)

Classical biological control

112

(13)

Theory and practice in selection and release of natural enemies

116

(1)

Evaluation of pest in target region

117

(1)

Exploration in pest area of origin

117

(2)

Selection of appropriate biocontrol agent

119

(1)

Quarantine and rearing

120

(1)

Release

120

(1)

Evaluation and monitoring

120

(1)

Risk and regulation

121

(4)

Case studies in classical biological control

125

(1)

Economic aspects

125

(2)

Microbial control

127

(15)

Characteristics and ecology of microbial agents

128

(5)

Bacillus thuringiensis

128

(1)

Viruses

129

(2)

Nematodes

131

(1)

Fungi

132

(1)

Experimental and operational use

133

(4)

Bacillus thuringiensis and viruses

133

(1)

Nematodes

134

(2)

Fungi

136

(1)

Registration and environmental impact

137

(3)

Registration and commercial availability

137

(1)

Non-target effects in the environment

138

(2)

Developments in the use of microbial control

140

(2)

Semiochemicals

142

(18)

Mating-disruption

145

(2)

Development of operational programmes for mating-disruption

145

(2)

Mass-trapping

147

(5)

Development of operational programmes for mass-trapping

149

(3)

Case studies in mass-trapping

152

(1)

Population manipulation

152

(7)

Aggregation pheromones

153

(2)

Antiaggregation pheromones

155

(4)

Registration and commercial availability of semiochemicals

159

(1)

Integrated pest management

160

(25)

The economics of control

160

(9)

Measuring the economic effects of pest damage

161

(1)

Impact on forests and forest ecosystems

162

(1)

Growth loss and mortality

162

(5)

Effects on timber quality and on seed loss in seed orchards

167

(1)

Home and export markets

168

(1)

People and the urban environment

168

(1)

Stand composition and ecosystem effects

168

(1)

Decision support and expert systems

169

(3)

IPM in practice

172

(3)

Future developments in pest management

175

(10)

Certification, conservation and multiple-use forests

175

(3)

Climate change

178

(7)

References

185

(38)

Glossary of tree names

223

(2)

General index

225

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