Ecological Risk Assessment for Contaminated Sites

by Suter II; Glenn W.

• ISBN13: 9781566705257
• ISBN10: 1566705258
• Edition: 1st
• Format: Hardcover
• Copyright: 2000-04-21
• Publisher: CRC Press

Summary

Love Canal. Exxon Valdez. Times Beach. Sacramento River Spill. Amoco Cadiz. Seveso. Every area of the world has been affected by improper waste disposal and chemical spills. Common hazardous waste sites include abandoned warehouses, manufacturing facilities, processing plants, and landfills. These sites poison the land and contaminate groundwater and drinking water.A sequel to the bestselling Ecological Risk Assessment, Ecological Risk Assessment for Contaminated Sites focuses on how to perform ecological risk assessments for Superfund sites and locations contaminated by improper disposal of wastes, or chemical spills. It integrates the authors' extensive experience in assessing ecological risks at U.S. government sites with techniques and examples from assessments performed by others.Conducting an ecological risk assessment on a contaminated site provides the information needed to make decisions concerning site remediation. The first rule of good risk assessment is "don't do anything stupid". With the practical preparation you get from Ecological Risk Assessment for Contaminated Sites you won't.

Table of Contents

Introduction: Definitions and Concepts
Scope and Definitions	1	(2)
Regulatory Context	3	(1)
Ecorisk Framework	4	(2)
The Remedial Process	6	(5)
Preliminary Site Characterization and Scoping Assessment	7	(1)
The Problem Formulation Process	8	(1)
The Analysis Plan	8	(1)
Baseline Ecological Risk Assessment	8	(1)
Remedial Alternatives Assessment	9	(1)
Efficacy Assessment	10	(1)
Damage Assessment	10	(1)
Tiers: Scoping, Screening, and Definitive Assessments	11	(2)
Relationship to Human Health Risk Assessment	13	(3)
Differences in Human Health and Ecological Risk Assessment	14	(2)
Why Ecological Entities May Be More Sensitive than Humans	16	(1)
Scale in Human Health and Ecological Risk	16	(1)
Participants in Ecological Risk Assessments	17	(2)
Problem Formulation	19	(50)
Risk Managers and Risk Assessors	19	(4)
Physical Scope	23	(6)
Spatial Extent	23	(1)
Spatial Units	24	(1)
Source Units	25	(1)
Watershed Units	26	(1)
Groundwater Units	27	(1)
Wildlife Units	27	(1)
Spatial Subunits	28	(1)
Site Description	29	(2)
Source Description	31	(1)
Assessment Endpoint Selection	31	(11)
Selection of Endpoint Entities	32	(5)
Selection of Assessment Endpoint Properties	37	(3)
Selection of Levels of Effect on Properties of Endpoint Entities	40	(2)
Conceptual Models	42	(11)
Conceptual Models of Alternative Baseline Scenarios	43	(1)
Components of a Conceptual Model	44	(1)
Unit Types and Default Conceptual Models	45	(1)
Sources	45	(2)
Routes of Transport	47	(2)
Exposure Media	49	(1)
Routes of Exposure	49	(2)
Receptors	51	(1)
Indirect Exposure and Effects	51	(1)
Output to Other Units	51	(1)
Relationship to Other Conceptual Models	52	(1)
Form of the Conceptual Model	52	(1)
Analysis Plan	53	(16)
Measures of Exposure, Effects, and Environmental Conditions	56	(2)
Sampling and Analysis Plan	58	(3)
Reference Sites and Reference Information	61	(1)
Information Concerning the Precontamination State of the Contaminated Site	61	(1)
Model-Derived Information	61	(1)
Information Concerning Other Sites	62	(2)
Information Concerning the Regional Reference	64	(1)
Positive Reference Information	65	(1)
Background	66	(1)
Field Verification of the Plan	66	(1)
Deviations and Contingencies	66	(3)
Analysis of Exposure	69	(72)
Components of Analysis of Exposure	70	(9)
Sampling and Chemical Analysis of Media	71	(2)
Chemical Analysis of Biota and Biomarkers	73	(4)
Bioassay	77	(1)
Biosurvey	78	(1)
Transport and Fate Models	78	(1)
Exposure Models	79	(1)
Exposure to Contaminants in Surface Water	79	(3)
Exposure to Contaminants in Sediment	82	(4)
Exposure to Contaminants in Soil	86	(5)
Sampling, Extraction, and Chemical Analysis	86	(2)
Partial Chemical Extraction and Normalization	88	(1)
Nonaqueous-Phase Liquids	89	(1)
Soil Depth Profile	90	(1)
Future Exposures	90	(1)
Exposure of Terrestrial Plants	91	(6)
Rooting Depth	92	(1)
Rhizosphere	93	(1)
Wetlands	93	(1)
Soil Properties	94	(1)
Chemical Form	95	(1)
Chemical Interactions	95	(1)
Interspecies Differences	95	(1)
Air as an Exposure Route	96	(1)
Exposure of Soil Invertebrates	97	(3)
Depth of Exposure and Ingested Material	97	(3)
Soil Properties and Chemical Interactions	100	(1)
Exposure of Soil Microbial Communities	100	(1)
Exposure of Wildlife	101	(14)
Exposure Based on Internal Measures	101	(2)
Exposure Based on External Measures	103	(5)
Exposure-Modifying Factors	108	(1)
Probabilistic Exposure Estimation	108	(1)
Parameters for Estimation of Exposure	109	(1)
Body Weight	109	(1)
Food and Water Consumption Rates	110	(1)
Inhalation Rates	111	(1)
Soil Consumption	112	(1)
Home Range and Territory Size	113	(2)
Uptake Models	115	(22)
Aquatic Organism Uptake	118	(3)
Terrestrial Plant Uptake	121	(1)
Empirical Models for Inorganic Chemicals	122	(3)
Empirical Models for Organic Chemicals	125	(3)
Mechanistic Models	128	(1)
Surface Contamination	128	(1)
Plant Tissue Type	129	(1)
Earthworm Uptake	129	(5)
Terrestrial Arthropod Uptake	134	(1)
Terrestrial Vertebrate Uptake	135	(2)
Petroleum and Other Chemical Mixtures	137	(3)
Summary of Exposure Characterization	140	(1)
Analysis of Effects	141	(62)
Single-Chemical or Single-Material Toxicity Tests	142	(33)
Types of Toxicity Tests	143	(2)
Aquatic Tests	145	(1)
Sediment Tests	146	(1)
Soil Tests	147	(1)
Dietary and Oral Tests	148	(1)
Body Burden-Effect Relationships	149	(4)
Criteria and Standards	153	(1)
Screening Benchmarks	154	(1)
Criteria and Standards as Screening Benchmarks	155	(1)
Tier II Values	155	(1)
Thresholds for Statistical Significance	155	(1)
Test Endpoints with Safety Factors	156	(1)
Distributions of Effects Levels	156	(1)
Other Methods Used for Sediment Benchmarks	157	(3)
Summary of Screening Benchmarks	160	(1)
Single-Chemical Test Endpoints and Definitive Assessment	161	(1)
Extrapolation Approaches	161	(5)
Extrapolations for Specific Endpoints	166	(7)
Quantitative Structure--Activity Relationships	173	(2)
Mechanistic Models of Effects	175	(1)
Ecotoxicity Profiles	175	(1)
Contaminated Media Toxicity Tests	175	(13)
Aqueous Toxicity Tests	180	(1)
Sediment Toxicity Tests	180	(3)
Soil Toxicity Tests	183	(3)
Ambient Media Tests with Wildlife	186	(2)
Biological Surveys	188	(11)
Aquatic Biological Surveys	190	(1)
Periphyton	191	(1)
Plankton	192	(1)
Fish	193	(1)
Benthic Invertebrates	194	(2)
Soil Biological Surveys	196	(1)
Wildlife Surveys	197	(1)
Plant Surveys	197	(2)
Biomarkers of Effects	199	(1)
Indirect Effects	200	(1)
Exposure--Response Profile	201	(2)
Risk Characterization in Screening Assessments	203	(12)
Screening Chemicals	204	(8)
Screening against Background	205	(1)
Selection of Background Data	205	(2)
Quantitative Methods for Comparison to Background	207	(1)
Treatment of Background in Multimedia Exposures	207	(1)
What Chemicals Can Be Screened against Background?	207	(1)
When Is a Concentration Not Comparable to Background?	208	(1)
Screening Biota Contamination Using Background Concentations for Abiotic Media	208	(1)
Screening Future Exposure Concentrations against Background	208	(1)
Screening against Detection Limits	208	(1)
Screening against Waste Constituents	209	(1)
Screening against Physicochemical Properties	209	(1)
Screening against Ecotoxicological Benchmarks	209	(2)
Exposure Concentrations	211	(1)
Screening Media	212	(1)
Screening Receptors	212	(1)
Screening Sites	213	(1)
Data Collection and Evaluation	213	(1)
Data Adequacy and Uncertainties	213	(1)
Presentation of a Screening Assessment	214	(1)
Risk Characterization in Definitive Assessments	215	(42)
Single-Chemical Toxicity	215	(18)
Aquatic Organisms	219	(3)
Benthic Invertebrates	222	(2)
Soil Exposure of Plants, Invertebrates, and Microbial Communities	224	(2)
Multimedia Exposure of Wildlife	226	(1)
Comparison of Exposure to Toxicity	226	(2)
Individual vs. Population Effects	228	(3)
Body Burdens of Endpoint Organisms	231	(2)
Ambient Media Toxicity Tests	233	(3)
Biological Surveys	236	(3)
Biomarkers and Pathologies	239	(2)
Weight of Evidence	241	(9)
Triad Alternatives	250	(2)
Risk Estimation	252	(1)
Future Risks	252	(1)
Interpretation	253	(1)
Reporting Ecological Risks	254	(3)
Uncertainty	257	(34)
Concepts and Definitions	257	(3)
Why Analyze Uncertainty?	260	(4)
Desire to Ensure Safety	261	(1)
Desire to Avoid Excessive Conservatism	262	(1)
Desire to Acknowledge and Present Uncertainty	262	(1)
Need to Estimate a Probabilistic Endpoint	263	(1)
Planning Remedial Investigations	263	(1)
Aiding Decision Making	263	(1)
Summary of Reasons	264	(1)
Quantitative Techniques for Analysis of Uncertainty	264	(6)
Uncertainty Factors	264	(1)
Data Distribution	265	(2)
Monte Carlo Analysis and Uncertainty Propagation	267	(1)
Nested Monte Carlo Analysis	267	(1)
Sensitivity Analysis	268	(1)
Analysis of Model Uncertainty	269	(1)
Making Sense of Uncertainty and Probability	270	(4)
Defining Exposure Distributions	270	(1)
Defining Effects Distributions	271	(2)
Defining Risk Distributions	273	(1)
Data Distributions and Risk	273	(1)
Methods for Exposure	274	(5)
Distributions of Measured Concentrations	274	(2)
Multimedia Exposure Models	276	(2)
Transport and Fate Models	278	(1)
Methods for Effects	279	(4)
Screening Benchmark Values	279
Species Sensitivity Distributions	270	(12)
Sediment Effects Distributions	282	(1)
Biological Surveys	282	(1)
Media Toxicity Tests	283	(1)
Methods for Risk Characterization	283	(2)
Simple Quotient Methods	283	(1)
Joint Probabilities	284	(1)
Parameters to Treat as Uncertain	285	(1)
Quality Assurance	286	(5)
Remedial Goals	291	(12)
Preliminary Remedial Goals	292	(6)
PRGs for Surface Water	293	(1)
Sediment	294	(1)
Soil	294	(1)
Modification of PRGs	295	(2)
Land Use	297	(1)
Remedial Goal Options	298	(3)
Spatial Considerations	301	(1)
Human Health	302	(1)
Remedial Decisions	303	(26)
Remedial Alternative Analysis	304	(14)
Risks Associated with Remedial Alternatives	306	(1)
Problem Formulation	307	(1)
The Nature of Stressors	307	(1)
Conceptual Models for Alternatives Assessments	307	(3)
Assessment Endpoints	310	(1)
Reference	311	(1)
Exposure Assessment	312	(1)
Effects Assessment	313	(1)
Risk Characterization	313	(1)
Spatial Considerations	314	(1)
Recovery	315	(3)
Risk Balancing	318	(8)
Different Risk Metrics	319	(1)
Land-Use Conflicts	320	(1)
An Approach to Balancing Risk	320	(1)
A Common Scale	321	(1)
Human Health Categories	321	(1)
Ecological Categories	322	(1)
Risk Balancing Based on a Common Scale	323	(2)
Remedial Units	325	(1)
Summary of Risk Balancing	325	(1)
Life-Cycle Assessment	326	(1)
Cost-Benefit Analysis	326	(1)
Prioritization of Sites for Remediation	326	(3)
Post-Remedial Assessments	329	(14)
Remedial Efficacy	329	(1)
Residual Risks	330	(13)
Preassessment Screen Phase	334	(1)
Assessment Plan Phase	334	(1)
Assessment Phase	335	(1)
Injury Determination Phase	335	(2)
Quantification Phase	337	(1)
Damage Determination	338	(1)
Post-Assessment Phase	339	(1)
Alternative Approaches	340	(1)
Conclusions	340	(3)
Appendix Biota Sampling and Survey Methods	343	(26)
A.1 Fishes	343	(1)
A.2 Periphyton	344	(1)
A.3 Plankton	345	(1)
A.4 Benthic Invertebrates	345	(2)
A.5 Terrestrial Plants	347	(1)
A.6 Terrestrial Mollusks	347	(1)
A.7 Earthworms	348	(1)
A.8 Terrestrial Arthropods	348	(1)
A.9 Birds	349	(5)
A.9.1 Sampling Birds	349	(1)
A.9.2 Avian Population Survey Methods	350	(1)
A.9.2.1 Territory Mapping	350	(1)
A.9.2.2 Transects	351	(1)
A.9.2.3 Point Counts	352	(1)
A.9.2.4 Mark-Recapture	352	(1)
A.9.2.5 Song Tapes	352	(1)
A.9.2.6 Aerial Counts	352	(1)
A.9.2.7 Habitat-Focused Surveys	353	(1)
A.9.2.8 Additional Information	353	(1)
A.9.3 Avian Nest Study Methods	353	(1)
A.9.4 Avian Food Habit Study Methods	354	(1)
A.10 Mammals	354	(5)
A.10.1 Sampling Mammals	354	(2)
A.10.2 Surveying Mammals	356	(1)
A.10.2.1 Direct Observation	356	(2)
A.10.2.2 Indirect Observation	358	(1)
A.10.2.3 Additional Information	359	(1)
A.11 Reptiles and Amphibians	359	(1)
A.12 Vegetation Analysis to Identify Habitat Suitable for Wildlife Species	360	(1)
A.13 Sampling Considerations	361	(8)
A.13.1 Spatial Components of Biota Sampling	361	(1)
A.13.2 Sample Handling	362	(1)
A.13.3 Tissues to Analyze	363	(1)
A.13.4 Permits	364	(1)
A.13.5 Euthanasia	364	(1)
A.13.6 Health Concerns	365	(4)
Glossary	369	(8)
References	377	(46)
Index	423