Ecological Risk Assessment, Second Edition

by Suter II; Glenn W.

• ISBN13: 9781566706346
• ISBN10: 1566706343
• Edition: 2nd
• Format: Hardcover
• Copyright: 2006-12-06
• Publisher: CRC Press

Summary

The definitive reference in its field, Ecological Risk Assessment, Second Edition details the latest advances in science and practice. In the fourteen years since the publication of the best-selling first edition, ecological risk assessment (ERA) has moved from the margins into the spotlight. It is now commonly applied to the regulation of chemicals, the remediation of contaminated sites, the monitoring of importation of exotic organisms, the management of watersheds, and other environmental management issues.Delineating the processes for performing an ERA, the book begins by defining the field, then goes on to describe its relationship to other environmental assessment practices and its organizational framework. The book also includes a chapter on ecological epidemiology, which has previously been treated as a type of ERA, but is now recognized as a distinct practice in itself. It Fiveexplores important concepts in the ERA process including probability, uncertainty, scale, mode of action and multiple causes.Reflecting changes in the field, the book's scope has been broadened to include discussions of the application of ERA to agents other than chemical contaminants. The multitude of illustrative figures provides a flavor for the diverse practice of ERA. The author has re-organized the material, presenting a unitary process of ERA that is applicable to various problems, scales, and mandates. He keeps the emphasis squarely on providing clear, scientifically sound, and unbiased technical advice on the risks from chemicals and chemical mixtures.

Table of Contents

Part I Introduction to Ecological Risk Assessment	1	(144)
Defining the Field	3	(12)
Predictive vs. Retrospective Risk Assessment	4	(1)
Risks, Benefits, and Costs	5	(1)
Decisions to Be Supported	5	(7)
Prioritization of Hazards	5	(1)
Comparison of Alternative Actions	6	(1)
Permitting Releases	7	(1)
Chemicals	7	(1)
Effluents and Wastes	8	(1)
New Organisms	8	(1)
Items in International Trade	8	(1)
Limiting Loading	8	(1)
Remediation and Restoration	9	(1)
Permitting and Managing Land Uses	10	(1)
Species Management	10	(1)
Setting Damages	10	(2)
Sociopolitical Purposes of Risk Assessment	12	(1)
Cast of Characters	12	(3)
Assessors	12	(1)
Risk Managers	12	(1)
Stakeholders	13	(2)
Other Types of Assessments	15	(10)
Monitoring Status and Trends	15	(1)
Setting Standards	16	(1)
Life Cycle Assessment	16	(1)
Prohibitions	16	(1)
Technology-Based Rules	17	(1)
Best Practices, Rules, or Guidance	17	(1)
Precautionary Principle	18	(1)
Adaptive Management	19	(1)
Analogy	20	(1)
Ecosystem Management	20	(1)
Health Risk Assessment	21	(1)
Environmental Impact Assessment	21	(1)
Summary	21	(4)
Ecological Risk Assessment Frameworks	25	(14)
Basic US EPA Framework	25	(2)
Alternative Frameworks	27	(6)
WHO-Integrated Framework	28	(1)
Multiple Activities	29	(1)
Ecological Epidemiology	30	(1)
Causal Chain Framework	31	(2)
Extended Frameworks	33	(1)
Iterative Assessment	33	(3)
Screening vs. Definitive Assessments	35	(1)
Baseline vs. Alternatives Assessments	36	(1)
Iterative Assessment as Adaptive Management	36	(1)
Problem-Specific Frameworks	36	(1)
Conclusions	37	(2)
Ecological Epidemiology and Causal Analysis	39	(30)
Biological Surveys	40	(2)
Biological Assessment	42	(2)
Causal Analysis	44	(23)
Identifying Candidate Causes	47	(1)
What is a Cause?	47	(2)
Developing the List	49	(1)
Developing Maps and Conceptual Models	49	(1)
Analyzing the Evidence	50	(1)
Evidence of Co-occurrence	51	(1)
Evidence of Sufficiency	52	(1)
Evidence of Temporality	52	(1)
Evidence from Manipulation	53	(1)
Evidence of Coherence	53	(1)
Characterizing Causes	54	(1)
Elimination	54	(1)
Diagnostic Protocols and Keys	55	(1)
Koch's Postulates	55	(2)
Strength-of-Evidence Analysis	57	(10)
Iteration of Causal Analysis	67	(1)
Identifying Sources and Management Alternatives	67	(1)
Risk Assessment in Ecoepidemiology	68	(1)
Summary	68	(1)
Variability, Uncertainty, and Probability	69	(26)
Sources of Unpredictability	69	(3)
Variability	69	(1)
Uncertainty	70	(1)
Variability Uncertainty Dichotomy	70	(1)
Combined Variability and Uncertainty	71	(1)
Error	71	(1)
Ignorance and Confusion	72	(1)
Summary of Sources	72	(1)
What is Probability?	72	(2)
Types of Probability: Frequency vs. Belief	73	(1)
Frequency	73	(1)
Belief	73	(1)
Types of Probability: Categorical vs. Conditional	74	(1)
Ways to Analyze Probabilities	74	(5)
Frequentist Statistics	75	(2)
Bayesian Statistics	77	(1)
Resampling Statistics	78	(1)
Other Approaches	79	(1)
Why Use Probabilistic Analyses?	79	(3)
Desire to Ensure Safety	79	(1)
Desire to Avoid Excessive Conservatism	80	(1)
Desire to Acknowledge and Present Uncertainty	80	(1)
Need to Estimate a Probabilistic Endpoint	80	(1)
Planning Sampling and Testing	81	(1)
Comparing Hypotheses and Associated Models	81	(1)
Aiding Decision Making	82	(1)
Summary of Reasons	82	(1)
Techniques for Analysis of Variability and Uncertainty	82	(7)
Uncertainty Factors	82	(1)
Confidence Intervals	83	(1)
Data Distributions	84	(1)
Statistical Modeling	85	(1)
Monte Carlo Analysis and Uncertainty Propagation	86	(1)
Nested Monte Carlo Analysis	86	(2)
Sensitivity Analysis	88	(1)
Listing and Qualitative Evaluation	89	(1)
Probability in the Risk Assessment Process	89	(4)
Defining Exposure Distributions	90	(1)
Defining Effects Distributions	91	(1)
Estimating Risk Distributions	92	(1)
Parameters to Treat as Uncertain	93	(1)
Summary	94	(1)
Dimensions, Scales, and Levels of Organization	95	(10)
Levels of Organization	95	(3)
Spatial and Temporal Scales	98	(2)
Regional Scale	100	(1)
Dimensions	100	(5)
Abundance or Intensity of the Agent	100	(1)
Temporal Duration	101	(1)
Space	101	(1)
Proportion Affected	101	(1)
Severity of the Effects	102	(1)
Type of Effect	102	(1)
What to do with Multiple Dimensions?	103	(2)
Modes and Mechanisms of Action	105	(6)
Chemical Modes and Mechanisms	105	(4)
Testing for Mechanisms	109	(1)
Nonchemical Modes and Mechanisms	109	(2)
Mixed and Multiple Agents	111	(18)
Chemical Mixtures	111	(12)
Methods Based on Whole Mixtures	112	(3)
Methods Based on Tests of Components	115	(1)
Simple Similar Action and Concentration Addition	116	(2)
Independent Action and Response Addition	118	(3)
Interactive Action	121	(1)
Multiple Chemicals and Multiple Species	121	(1)
Integration of Complex Chemical Mixtures	122	(1)
Multiple and Diverse Agents	123	(6)
Categorize and Combine Agents	125	(1)
Determine Spatial and Temporal Overlap	125	(1)
Define Effects and Mode of Action	125	(1)
Screen Effects	126	(1)
Simple Additive Effects	127	(1)
Additive Exposures	127	(1)
Mechanistic Models of Combined Effects	128	(1)
Integration of Complex Sets of Agents and Activities	128	(1)
Quality Assurance	129	(16)
Data Quality	130	(6)
Primary Data	130	(2)
Secondary Data	132	(2)
Defaults and Assumptions	134	(1)
Representing Data Quality	135	(1)
Data Management	135	(1)
Model Quality	136	(3)
Quality of Probabilistic Analyses	139	(3)
Assessment Quality	142	(2)
Process Quality	142	(1)
Peer Review of the Assessment	143	(1)
Replication of Assessments	143	(1)
Summary	144	(1)
Part II Planning and Problem Formulation	145	(52)
Impetus and Mandate	147	(2)
Goals and Objectives	149	(2)
Management Options	151	(2)
Agents and Sources	153	(4)
Emissions	153	(1)
Activities and Programs	154	(1)
Sources of Causes	154	(1)
Properties of the Agent	154	(1)
Sources of Indirect Exposure and Effects	154	(1)
Screening Sources and Agents	155	(2)
Environmental Description	157	(4)
Exposure Scenarios	161	(2)
Assessment Endpoints	163	(14)
Assessment Endpoints and Levels of Organization	166	(1)
Generic Assessment Endpoints	167	(4)
Generic Endpoints Based on Policy Judgments	167	(1)
Functionally Defined Generic Endpoints	168	(2)
Applying Generic Endpoints	170	(1)
Making Generic Assessment Endpoints Specific	171	(3)
Endpoints Based on Objectives Hierarchies	174	(3)
Conceptual Models	177	(12)
Uses of Conceptual Models	177	(3)
Forms of Conceptual Models	180	(1)
Creating Conceptual Models	181	(6)
Linkage to Other Conceptual Models	187	(2)
Analysis Plans	189	(8)
Choosing Measures of Exposure, Effects, and Environmental Conditions	189	(2)
Reference Sites and Reference Information	191	(6)
Information Concerning the Precontamination or Predisturbance State	191	(1)
Model-Derived Information	192	(1)
Information Concerning Other Sites	192	(2)
Information Concerning a Regional Reference	194	(1)
Gradients as Reference	194	(1)
Positive Reference Information	195	(1)
Goals as an Alternative to Reference	195	(2)
Part III Analysis of Exposure	197	(98)
Source Identification and Characterization	199	(4)
Sources and the Environment	199	(1)
Unknown Sources	200	(1)
Summary	201	(2)
Sampling, Analysis, and Assays	203	(14)
Sampling and Chemical Analysis of Media	203	(1)
Sampling and Sample Preparation	204	(1)
Encountered Data	205	(1)
Screening Analyses	205	(1)
Analysis of Cofactors	205	(3)
Water	208	(1)
Sediment	208	(1)
Soil	209	(1)
Biota and Biomarkers	209	(3)
Bioassays	212	(1)
Biosurveys	213	(1)
Sampling, Analysis, and Probabilities	214	(1)
Conclusions	215	(2)
Mathematical Models of Chemical Transport and Fate	217	(26)
Objectives	217	(1)
Basic Modeling Concepts	217	(3)
Emissions or Loadings	218	(1)
Point and Nonpoint Sources	219	(1)
Steady-State and Non-Steady-State Sources	219	(1)
Importance of Scale	219	(1)
Formulating Mass Balance Models	220	(6)
Defining Compartments	220	(1)
Reaction Rates	220	(2)
Transport Rates	222	(2)
Emissions	224	(1)
Solutions to the Mass Balance Equation	224	(1)
Complexity, Validity, and Confidence Limits	225	(1)
Illustration of a Simple Mass Balance Model	226	(6)
The System Being Modeled	226	(1)
Concentration Calculation	227	(1)
Chemical Input Rate	227	(1)
Partitioning between Water, Particles, and Fish	227	(1)
Outflow in Water	228	(1)
Outflow in Particles	228	(1)
Reaction	228	(1)
Deposition to Sediment	228	(1)
Evaporation	228	(1)
Combined Loss Processes	228	(1)
Fugacity Calculation	229	(2)
Discussion	231	(1)
Chemicals of Concern and Models Simulating their Behavior	232	(9)
General Multimedia Models	232	(1)
Level I	233	(1)
Level II	233	(1)
Level III	233	(1)
Level IV	233	(1)
Fugacity Models	234	(1)
CalTOX Model	234	(1)
Simplebox Model	234	(1)
Regional, Continental, and Global-Scale Models	234	(1)
Models Specific to Environmental Media	234	(1)
Plume Models in General	235	(1)
Atmospheric Models	235	(1)
Aquatic Models	235	(1)
Soil Models	236	(1)
Fish Uptake and Food Chain Models	236	(1)
Miscellaneous Models	237	(1)
Models Specific to Chemical Classes	237	(1)
Agricultural Pesticides	237	(2)
Veterinary Medicines	239	(1)
Biocides	240	(1)
Metals	240	(1)
Concluding Thoughts on Selecting and Applying Models	241	(2)
Exposure to Chemicals and Other Agents	243	(52)
Exposure Models	245	(1)
Exposure to Chemicals in Surface Water	245	(2)
Exposure to Chemicals in Sediment	247	(3)
Exposure to Contaminants in Soil	250	(4)
Chemical Analyses to Estimate Exposure	250	(1)
Partial Chemical Extraction and Normalization	251	(1)
Input Form of the Chemical	252	(1)
Chemical Interactions	253	(1)
Nonaqueous Phase Liquids	253	(1)
Soil Depth Profile	253	(1)
Exposure of Terrestrial Plants	254	(2)
Rooting Depth	254	(1)
Rhizosphere	254	(1)
Wetland Plant Exposures	255	(1)
Soil Properties and Exposure of Plants	255	(1)
Plant Interspecies Differences	255	(1)
Plant Exposure in Air	255	(1)
Exposure of Soil Invertebrates	256	(1)
Depth of Exposure and Ingested Material	256	(1)
Soil Properties and Chemical Interactions	257	(1)
Exposure of Soil Microbial Communities	257	(1)
Exposure of Wildlife	257	(11)
Exposure Models Based on External Measures	258	(1)
Dermal Exposure	258	(1)
Inhalation Exposure	259	(1)
Oral Exposure	259	(2)
Spatial Issues in Wildlife Exposure	261	(1)
Temporal Issues in Wildlife Exposure	262	(1)
Exposure Modifying Factors	263	(1)
Parameters for Estimation of Exposure	263	(1)
Body Weight	263	(1)
Food and Water Consumption Rates	263	(2)
Inhalation Rates	265	(1)
Soil and Sediment Consumption	266	(1)
Home Range and Territory Size	266	(2)
Uptake Models	268	(19)
Aquatic Organism Uptake	271	(2)
Neutral Organics	273	(2)
Ionizing Organic Chemicals	275	(1)
Inorganic and Organometalic Chemicals	275	(1)
Aquatic Plants	276	(1)
Aquatic Toxicokinetics	276	(1)
Benthic Invertebrate Uptake	277	(1)
Terrestrial Plant Uptake	278	(1)
Soil Uptake	278	(1)
Empirical Models of Inorganic Chemicals	278	(3)
Empirical Models for Organic Chemicals	281	(1)
Surface Contamination	281	(2)
Plant Tissue Type	283	(1)
Mechanistic Models	283	(1)
Earthworm Uptake	284	(2)
Terrestrial Arthropod Uptake	286	(1)
Terrestrial Vertebrate Uptake	287	(1)
Exposure to Petroleum and other Chemical Mixtures	287	(4)
Exposure to Natural Extreme Events	291	(1)
Exposure to Organisms	291	(1)
Probability and Exposure Models	291	(3)
Presenting the Exposure Characterization	294	(1)
Part IV Analysis of Effects	295	(138)
Exposure--Response Relationships	297	(24)
Approaches to Exposure--Response	301	(2)
Mechanistic Models	301	(1)
Regression Models	301	(1)
Statistical Significance	302	(1)
Interpolation	303	(1)
Effect Level and Confidence	303	(1)
Issues in Exposure--Response	303	(14)
Thresholds and Benchmarks	303	(2)
Time as Exposure and Response	305	(1)
Combined Concentration and Duration	306	(1)
Nonmonotonic Relationships	307	(1)
Categorical Variables	308	(1)
Exposure--Response from Field Data	309	(4)
Residue--Response Relationships	313	(4)
Toxicodynamics--Mechanistic Internal Exposure--Response	317	(2)
Toxicodynamics of Metals on Gills	318	(1)
Indirect Effects	319	(2)
Testing	321	(26)
Testing Issues	321	(2)
Chemical or Material Tests	323	(5)
Aquatic Tests	324	(1)
Sediment Tests	325	(1)
Soil Tests	326	(1)
Oral and Other Wildlife Exposures	327	(1)
Microcosms and Mesocosms	328	(4)
Effluent Tests	332	(1)
Media Tests	333	(8)
Contaminated Water Tests	337	(1)
Contaminated Sediment Tests	338	(1)
Contaminated Soil Tests	339	(1)
Ambient Media Tests with Wildlife	340	(1)
Field Tests	341	(3)
Aquatic Field Tests	341	(2)
Field Tests of Plants and Soil Organisms	343	(1)
Wildlife Field Tests	343	(1)
Testing Organisms	344	(1)
Testing Other Nonchemical Agents	345	(1)
Summary of Testing	345	(2)
Biological Surveys	347	(10)
Aquatic Biological Surveys	348	(5)
Periphyton	349	(1)
Plankton	350	(1)
Fish	350	(1)
Benthic Invertebrates	351	(2)
Terrestrial Biological Surveys	353	(2)
Soil Biological Surveys	353	(1)
Wildlife Surveys	354	(1)
Terrestrial Plant Surveys	354	(1)
Physiological, Histological, and Morphological Effects	355	(1)
Uncertainties in Biological Surveys	356	(1)
Summary	356	(1)
Organism-Level Extrapolation Models	357	(26)
Structure--Activity Relationships	357	(2)
Chemical Domains for SARs	358	(1)
Approaches for SARs	358	(1)
State of SARs	359	(1)
Effects Extrapolation Approaches	359	(14)
Classification and Selection	360	(1)
Factors	360	(1)
Species Sensitivity Distributions	361	(5)
Regression Models	366	(1)
Temporal Extrapolation of Exposure--Response Models	367	(1)
Factors Derived from Statistical Models	368	(3)
Allometric Scaling	371	(1)
Toxicokinetic Modeling for Extrapolation	372	(1)
Multiple and Combined Approaches	373	(1)
Extrapolations for Particular Biotas	373	(8)
Aquatic Biota	373	(1)
Benthic Invertebrates	374	(1)
Wildlife	375	(1)
Soil Invertebrates and Plants	376	(2)
Soil Processes	378	(1)
Water Chemistry	378	(1)
Soil Properties	379	(1)
Laboratory to Field	379	(2)
Summary	381	(2)
Population Modeling	383	(30)
Basic Concepts and Definitions	385	(2)
Population-Level Assessment Endpoints	385	(1)
Implications of Life History for Population-Level Ecological Risk Assessment	385	(1)
Representation and Propagation of Uncertainty	386	(1)
Density Dependence	386	(1)
Approaches to Population Analysis	387	(10)
Potential Population Growth Rate	387	(2)
Projection Matrices	389	(4)
Aggregated Models	393	(1)
Metapopulation Models	394	(1)
Individual-Based Models	395	(2)
Applications to Toxic Chemicals	397	(13)
Quantifying Uncertainties in Individual-to-Population Extrapolations	398	(3)
Life History--Based Ecological Risk Assessment	401	(2)
Quantifying Impacts of Chemical Exposures on Risk of Extinction	403	(3)
Quantifying Impacts of Chemicals on Metapopulations	406	(2)
Individual-Based Models	408	(2)
Future of Population Modeling in Ecological Risk Assessment	410	(3)
Ecosystem Effects Modeling	413	(20)
An Ecosystem Paradigm	413	(1)
Ecosystem Risk Assessment	414	(1)
Ecosystem Assessment Endpoints	415	(1)
Ecosystem Simulation Modeling	415	(7)
Physical Ecosystem Models	416	(1)
Ecosystem Network Analysis	417	(3)
Compartment Models	420	(1)
Existing Ecosystem Risk Models	421	(1)
AQUATOX	421	(1)
CASM	421	(1)
IFEM	422	(1)
Model Selection, Adaptation, and Development	422	(4)
Model Selection	422	(1)
Model Adaptation and Development	423	(1)
Model Structure	424	(1)
Governing Equations	424	(1)
Scaling	424	(1)
Exposure--Response Functions	425	(1)
Data	426	(1)
Innovations in Ecosystem Modeling	426	(2)
Structurally Dynamic Models	427	(1)
Interactive Modeling Platforms	427	(1)
Network-Enabled Ecosystem Models	427	(1)
Ecosystem Animation	427	(1)
Ecosystem Models, Risk Assessment, and Decision making	428	(3)
Model Results and NOECs	428	(1)
Atrazine Levels of Concern	429	(2)
Models or Modelers	431	(2)
Part V Risk Characterization	433	(88)
Criteria and Benchmarks	435	(6)
Criteria	435	(2)
Screening Benchmarks	437	(4)
Criteria as Screening Benchmarks	437	(1)
Tier II Values	437	(1)
Benchmarks Based on Exposure--Response Models	438	(1)
Thresholds for Statistical Significance	438	(1)
Test Endpoints with Safety Factors	438	(1)
Distributions of Effects Levels	438	(1)
Equilibrium Partitioning Benchmarks	439	(1)
Averaged Values as Benchmarks	439	(1)
Ecoepidemiological Benchmarks	439	(1)
Summary of Screening Benchmarks	440	(1)
Integrating Exposure and Exposure--Response	441	(14)
Quotient Methods	441	(1)
Exposure is Distributed and Response is Fixed	442	(1)
Both Exposure and Response are Distributed	443	(2)
Integrated Simulation Models	445	(1)
Integration of Sense and Nonsense	446	(2)
Integration in Space	448	(2)
Examples	450	(3)
Shrews on a Mercury--Contaminated Site	450	(1)
Egrets and Eagles in South Florida	450	(1)
Egrets and Herons in Hong Kong	450	(1)
Bioaccumulative Contaminants in a Stream	451	(1)
Secondary Poisoning in Hawaii	451	(1)
Atrazine	452	(1)
Warming Subalpine Forests	452	(1)
Summary	453	(2)
Screening Characterization	455	(14)
Screening Chemicals and Other Agents	455	(2)
Quotients	456	(1)
Scoring Systems	457	(1)
Screening for Properties	457	(1)
Logical Criteria	457	(1)
Screening Sites	457	(10)
Screening Chemicals at Sites	458	(1)
Screening Against Background	459	(2)
Screening Against Detection Limits	461	(1)
Screening Against Waste Constituents	462	(1)
Screening Against Physical-Chemical Properties	462	(1)
Screening Against Ecotoxicological Benchmarks	462	(2)
Screening Species Against Area	464	(1)
Exposure Concentrations for Sites	464	(1)
Screening Media	465	(1)
Screening Receptors	465	(1)
Screening Sites	465	(1)
Data Adequacy and Uncertainties	465	(1)
Presentation of a Site Screening Assessment	466	(1)
Examples	467	(2)
Definitive Risk Characterization by Weighing the Evidence	469	(40)
Weighing Evidence	469	(2)
Sediment Quality Triad: A Simple and Clear Inference Method	471	(2)
Inference to the Best Conclusion at Contaminated Sites	473	(27)
Single-Chemical Toxicity	473	(2)
Aquatic Organisms	475	(1)
Benthic Invertebrates	476	(1)
Soil Exposure of Plants, Invertebrates, and Microbial Communities	477	(1)
Multimedia Exposure of Wildlife	478	(3)
Body Burdens of Endpoint Organisms	481	(1)
Ambient Media Toxicity Tests	482	(5)
Biological Surveys	487	(3)
Biomarkers and Pathologies	490	(2)
Weight of Evidence	492	(2)
Weighting Considerations	494	(4)
Risk Estimation	498	(1)
Future Risks	499	(1)
Examples	500	(6)
Characterizing Contaminated Site Risks	500	(2)
Characterizing Contaminated Sediment Risks	502	(1)
Characterizing Wildlife Risks	503	(1)
Characterizing Pesticide Risks	504	(1)
Characterizing Effluent Risks	505	(1)
Interpretation	506	(3)
Comparative Risk Characterization	509	(6)
Methods of Comparative Risk Characterization	510	(3)
Risk Ranking	510	(1)
Risk Classification	511	(1)
Relative Risk Scaling	511	(1)
Relative Risk Estimation	511	(1)
Net Environmental Benefits Analysis	511	(2)
Economic Units	513	(1)
Reporting Comparative Risk	513	(1)
Comparison and Uncertainty	513	(1)
Summary	513	(2)
Characterizing Variability, Uncertainty, and Incomplete Knowledge	515	(6)
Characterizing Variability	515	(1)
Characterizing Uncertainty	516	(1)
Uncertainty and Weight of Evidence	517	(1)
Biases	518	(1)
Limitations	518	(1)
Conclusions	519	(2)
Part VI Risk Management	521	(26)
Reporting and Communicating Ecological Risks	523	(6)
Reporting Ecological Risks	533
Communicating Ecological Risks	525	(4)
Decision Making and Ecological Risks	529	(4)
Preventing Exceedence of Standards	529	(1)
Preventing Adverse Effects	529	(1)
Minimizing Risks	530	(1)
Assuring Environmental Benefits	530	(1)
Maximizing Cost-Effectiveness	530	(1)
Balancing Costs and Benefits	530	(1)
Decision Analysis	531	(1)
Miscellaneous and Ad Hoc Considerations	531	(2)
Integration of Human Health Risk Assessment	533	(4)
Wildlife as Sentinels	533	(1)
Integrated Analysis of Human and Ecological Risks	534	(2)
Coherent Expression of Assessment Results	534	(1)
Interdependence	535	(1)
Quality	535	(1)
Efficiency	535	(1)
Environmental Condition and Human Welfare	536	(1)
Summary	536	(1)
Integration of Risk, Law, Ethics, Economics, and Preferences	537	(6)
Ecological Risk and Law	537	(1)
Ecological Risk and Economics	538	(3)
Ecological Risk and Ethics	541	(1)
Ecological Risk, Stakeholder Preferences, and Public Opinion	542	(1)
Conclusions	542	(1)
Monitoring the Results of Risk Management	543	(4)
Part VII The Future of Ecological Risk Assessment	547	(2)
Glossary	549	(12)
References	561	(64)
Index	625