Ecology of Harmful Algae

by Graneli, E.; Turner, J. T.

• ISBN13: 9783540322092
• ISBN10: 3540322094
• Format: Hardcover
• Copyright: 2006-10-31
• Publisher: Springer Verlag

Summary

Harmful algal blooms are one of the consequences of the human impact on aquatic ecosystems, particularly the process of eutrophication. They can cause a variety of deleterious effects, including the poisoning of fish and shellfish, habitat disruptions for many organisms, water discolouration, beach fouling, and even toxic effects for humans.This volume is a comprehensive synthesis of the latest research achievements concerning harmful algae (HA) ecology. International experts provide an in-depth analysis of HA topics including: global distribution, ecology of major HA groups, ecology and physiology of HA, HA and the food web, studying and mitigating HA, the human impact on HA and HA impact on human activity. This volume is an invaluable source of information for researchers in HA ecology as well as for advanced students, lecturers, and environmental managers.

Table of Contents

Part A Harmful Algae and Their Global Distribution
1 An Introduction to Harmful Algae	3	(6)
E. GRANÉLI and J.T. TURNER
References	7	(2)
2 Molecular Taxonomy of Harmful Algae	9	(14)
S. JANSON and P.K. HAYES
2.1 Introduction	9	(1)
2.2 Dinophyta (Dinoflagellates)	10	(4)
2.2.1 General Morphology	10	(1)
2.2.2 Dinophysis	11	(1)
2.2.3 Alexandrium	11	(1)
2.2.4 Protoperidinium, Prorocentrum	12	(1)
2.2.5 Karenia, Karlodinium, Takayama	13	(1)
2.2.6 Amphidinium, Cochlodinium, Gyrodinium	14	(1)
2.3 Cyanobacteria (Blue-Green Algae)	14	(3)
2.3.1 Anabaena, Aphanizomenon, Nodularia	14	(1)
2.3.2 Microcystis	15	(1)
2.3.3 Trichodesmium	16	(1)
2.4 Bacillariophyta (Diatoms)	17	(1)
2.4.1 Amphora, Pseudo-nitzschia, Nitzschia	17	(1)
2.5 Concluding Remarks	17	(1)
References	18	(5)
3 The Biogeography of Harmful Algae	23	(14)
N. LUNDHOLM and Ø. MOESTRUP
3.1 Biogeography and Species Concepts	23	(2)
3.1.1 Genetic Variation	24	(1)
3.2 Biogeographical Distribution	25	(1)
3.3 Distribution of Harmful Species	26	(6)
3.3.1 Dinoflagellates	26	(1)
3.3.2 Diatoms	27	(2)
3.3.3 Haptophytes	29	(1)
3.3.4 Raphidophyceans	29	(2)
3.3.5 Cyanobacteria	31	(1)
References	32	(5)
4 Importance of Life Cycles in the Ecology of Harmful Microalgae	37	(16)
K.A. STEIDINGER and E. GARCÉS
4.1 Introduction	37	(2)
4.2 Phases of Phytoplankton Bloom Development and Life Cycles	39	(5)
4.2.1 Initiation	39	(2)
4.2.2 Growth and Maintenance	41	(3)
4.2.3 Dispersal/Dissipation/Termination	44	(1)
4.3 Environmental Factors versus Biological Factors Affecting Transition	44	(1)
4.4 Status of Knowledge and Direction Needed	45	(2)
References	47	(6)
Part B The Ecology of Major Harmful Algae Groups
5 The Ecology of Harmful Dinoflagellates	53	(74)
J.M. BURKHOLDER, R.V. AZANZA, and Y. SAKO
5.1 Introduction	53	(1)
5.2 General Ecology	54	(5)
5.2.1 Motility	54	(1)
5.2.2 Temperature, Light, Salinity and Turbulence	55	(1)
5.2.3 Nutrition: the Continuum from Auxotrophy to Parasitism	56	(3)
5.3 Blooms, Including Toxic Outbreaks	59	(1)
5.4 Human Influences	60	(1)
5.5 Conceptual Frameworks to Advance Understanding	61	(3)
References	64	(3)
6 The Ecology of Harmful Flagellates Within Prymnesiophyceae and Raphidophyceae	67	(14)
B. EDVARDSEN and I. IMAI
6.1 Introduction	67	(1)
6.2 Class Prymnesiophyceae (Division Haptophyta)	67	(5)
6.2.1 Taxonomy, Morphology and Life History	67	(1)
6.2.2 Distribution and Abundance	68	(1)
6.2.3 Autecology and Ecophysiology	69	(1)
6.2.4 Toxicity and Toxins	70	(1)
6.2.5 Ecological Strategies	71	(1)
6.3 Class Raphidophyceae (Division Heterokontophyta)	72	(5)
6.3.1 Taxonomy, Morphology and Life History	72	(1)
6.3.2 Distribution and Abundance	73	(1)
6.3.3 Autecology and Ecophysiology	74	(1)
6.3.4 Toxicity	75	(1)
6.3.5 Ecological Strategies	75	(2)
References	77	(4)
7 The Ecology of Harmful Diatoms	81	(14)
S.S. BATES and V.L. TRAINER
7.1 Introduction	81	(1)
7.2 Toxin-Producing Diatoms, Genus Pseudo-nitzschia	82	(1)
7.3 Domoic Acid in the Marine Food Web	83	(1)
7.4 Physiological Ecology of Pseudo-nitzschia spp	84	(2)
7.5 Molecular Tools for Studying Pseudo-nitzschia	86	(1)
7.6 Conclusions and Directions for Future Research	87	(1)
References	88	(7)
8 Ecology of Harmful Cyanobacteria	95	(16)
H.W. PAERL and R.S. FULTON III
8.1 Introduction	95	(2)
8.2 Environmental Factors Controlling CyanoHABs	97	(7)
8.2.1 Nutrients	97	(5)
8.2.2 Physical-Chemical Factors: Salinity and Turbulence	102	(1)
8.2.3 Salinity and Turbulence	102	(2)
8.3 CyanoHAB Interactions with Micro/Macroorganisms	104	(2)
8.4 CyanoHAB Management	106	(1)
References	107	(4)
9 Brown Tides	111
C.J. GOBLER and W.G. SUNDA
9.1 Background	111	(2)
9.2 Nutrients and Physical Factors	113	(4)
9.3 Sources of Cell Mortality	117	(3)
References	120	(7)
Part C The Ecology and Physiology of Harmful Algae
10 Harmful Algal Bloom Dynamics in Relation to Physical Processes	127	(132)
F.G. FIGUEIRAS, G.C. PITCHER, and M. ESTRADA
10.1 Introduction	127	(1)
10.2 Physical Constraints: From Diffusion to Advection	128	(1)
10.3 Life-Forms	129	(1)
10.4 Algal Communities	130	(1)
10.5 Retention and Transport	131	(5)
10.5.1 Retention-Reduced Exchange	131	(2)
10.5.2 Transport	133	(3)
References	136	(3)
11 Ecological Aspects of Harmful Algal In Situ Population Growth Rates	139	(1)
W. STOLTE and E. GARCÉS
11.1 Introduction	139	(1)
11.2 Ecological Interpretation of In Situ Growth Rate Measurements	140	(3)
11.3 In Situ Growth Rates; Variation Among Taxonomic Groups	143	(4)
11.4 Are Harmful Algal Species r- or K-Strategists?	147	(2)
11.5 Conclusions	149	(1)
References	149	(4)
12 Harmful Algae and Cell Death	153	(1)
M.J.W. Veldhuis and C.P.D. Brussaard
12.1 Introduction	153	(3)
12.2 Mortality of HABs	156	(1)
12.3 Death Due to HABs	157	(1)
12.4 Mechanisms to Avoid Cell Mortality	158	(1)
12.5 Ecological Implications	159	(1)
References	160	(3)
13 The Diverse Nutrient Strategies of Harmful Algae: Focus on Osmotrophy	163	(1)
P.M. GLIBERT and C. LEGRAND
13.1 Introduction and Terminology	163	(1)
13.2 Osmotrophy Pathways and Methods to Explore Them	164	(3)
13.3 Cellular Costs and Benefits of Osmotrophy	167	(1)
13.4 Ecological Significance of Osmotrophy	168	(2)
13.5 A Comment on Evolutionary Aspects of Osmotrophy	170	(1)
13.6 Conclusions	171	(1)
References	171	(6)
14 Phagotrophy in Harmful Algae	177	(1)
D. STOECKER, U. TILLMANN, and E. GRANÉLI
14.1 Introduction	177	(3)
14.2 Phagotrophy and its Advantages	180	(2)
14.3 Relationship of Phagotrophy to Toxicity	182	(2)
14.4 Significance of Phagotrophy	184	(1)
References	185	(4)
15 Allelopathy in Harmful Algae: A Mechanism to Compete for Resources?	189	(1)
E. GRANÉLI and P.J. HANSEN
15.1 Harmful Algal Species Known of Allelopathy	189	(1)
15.2 Approaches to Demonstrate/Study Allelopathy - Pitfalls and Strength/Weaknesses of Experimental Approaches	189	(3)
15.3 Which Toxins are Involved in the Allelopathic Effects?	192	(2)
15.4 Influence of Abiotic and Biotic Factors on Allelopathy	194	(4)
15.4.1 Abiotic Factors	194	(2)
15.4.2 Biotic Factors	196	(2)
15.5 Ecological Significance of Allelopathy in Marine Ecosystems	198	(1)
References	199	(4)
16 Trace Metals and Harmful Algal Blooms	203	(1)
W.G. SUNDA
16.1 Introduction	203	(1)
16.2 Chemistry and Availability of Metals	204	(1)
16.3 Trace Metals as Limiting Nutrients	205	(2)
16.4 Trace Metal Toxicity	207	(1)
16.5 Trace Metal Effects on HABs: Domoic Acid Production in Pseudo-nitzschia	208	(2)
16.6 Trace Metal Effects on Other HAB Species	210	(1)
References	211	(4)
17 Molecular Physiology of Toxin Production and Growth Regulation in Harmful Algae	215	(1)
A. CEMBELLA and U. JOHN
17.1 Introduction	215	(1)
17.2 Phycotoxin Biosynthesis	216	(1)
17.3 Growth and Regulation of Toxin Production	217	(2)
17.4 Toxin Production Through the Cell Cycle	219	(1)
17.5 Molecular Approaches to Growth and Toxin Expression	220	(3)
17.6 Current and Future Perspectives	223	(3)
References	226	(3)
18 Chemical and Physical Factors Influencing Toxin Content	229	(1)
E. Granéli and K. Flynn
18.1 Introduction	229	(1)
18.2 Growth Stage and Toxin Production	229	(1)
18.3 Physical Factors Influencing Toxin Content	230	(1)
18.4 Inorganic Nutrients and Toxin Content	231	(6)
18.5 Organic Matter and Toxin Content	237	(1)
18.6 Conclusions	238	(1)
References	239	(4)
19 Relationships Between Bacteria and Harmful Algae	243	(1)
M. KODAMA, G.J. DOUCETTE, and D.H. GREEN
19.1 Introduction	243	(1)
19.2 Diversity of Algal-Associated Bacteria	244	(3)
19.2.1 Bacteria Associated with Harmful Algal Species	244	(2)
19.2.2 Spatio-Temporal Relationships Between Bacteria and Algae	246	(1)
19.3 Bacterial Influences on Algal Growth, Metabolism, and Toxins	247	(3)
19.3.1 Bacterial Effects on Algal Growth	247	(1)
19.3.2 The Role of Bacteria in Toxin Production	248	(1)
19.3.3 Bacterially-Mediated Release and Metabolism of Algal Toxins	249	(1)
19.4 Potential Implications of Interactions Among Bacteria	250	(1)
19.5 Future Directions/Research Needs/Critical Questions	251	(1)
References	252	(7)
Part D Harmful Algae and the Food Web
20 Harmful Algae Interactions with Marine Planktonic Grazers	259	(40)
J.T. TURNER
20.1 Introduction	259	(1)
20.2 Planktonic Grazers	260	(3)
20.2.1 Heterotrophic Dinoflagellates and other Flagellates	260	(1)
20.2.2 Tintinnids and Aloricate Ciliates	261	(1)
20.2.3 Rotifers	261	(1)
20.2.4 Copepods and other Mesozooplankton	262	(1)
20.3 HAB Toxin Accumulation in Zooplankton	263	(1)
20.4 Selective Grazing and Feeding Deterrence by Harmful Algae	263	(1)
20.5 Impact of Zooplankton Grazing on Formation and Termination of HA Blooms	264	(1)
20.6 Conclusions	265	(1)
References	266	(5)
21 Pathogens of Harmful Microalgae	271	(1)
P.S. SALOMON and I. IMAI
21.1 Introduction	271	(1)
21.2 Viruses	271	(2)
21.2.1 Host Specificity	273	(1)
21.3 Algicidal Bacteria	273	(2)
21.3.1 Modes of Algicidal Activity and Specificity	273	(1)
21.3.2 Ecology of Algicidal Bacteria and Harmful Microalgae	274	(1)
21.3.3 Seaweed Beds as Prevention of HABs	275	(1)
21.4 Parasitic Fungi	275	(1)
21.4.1 Host Specificity	276	(1)
21.5 Parasitic Protists	276	(3)
21.5.1 Host Specificity	278	(1)
21.5.2 Host Avoidance of Parasitic Infection	278	(1)
21.6 Conclusions and Future Perspectives	279	(1)
References	280	(3)
22 Phycotoxin Pathways in Aquatic Food Webs: Transfer, Accumulation, and Degradation	283	(1)
G.J. DOUCETTE, I. MANEIRO, I. RIVEIRO, and C. SVENSEN
22.1 Introduction	283	(1)
22.2 Bacteria	283	(2)
22.3 Zooplankton	285	(1)
22.4 Bivalves	286	(1)
22.5 Benthic Invertebrates (Non-Bivalves)	287	(1)
22.6 Fishes	288	(1)
22.7 Seabirds and Marine Mammals	289	(1)
22.8 Summary and Conclusions	290	(3)
References	293	(6)
Part E Studying and Mitigating Harmful Algae: New Approaches
23 Molecular Approaches to the Study of Phytoplankton Life Cycles: Implications for Harmful Algal Bloom Ecology	299	(42)
R.W. LITAKER and P.A. TESTER
23.1 Introduction	299	(1)
23.2 Identifying Life Cycle Stages Using Fluorescence In Situ Hybridization (FISH)	299	(2)
23.3 Nuclear Staining to Determine Ploidy and Growth Rates	301	(1)
23.4 Genomic Approaches to Identifying Mitotic and Meiotic Life Cycle Stages	302	(3)
23.5 Measuring Genetic Recombination During Sexual Reproduction	305	(1)
23.6 Future Application of Reverse Transcriptase Assays and DNA Microarrays in Life Cycle Studies	305	(2)
23.7 Conclusions	307	(1)
References	307	(4)
24 Laboratory and Field Applications of Ribosomal RNA Probes to Aid the Detection and Monitoring of Harmful Algae	311	(1)
K. METFIES, K. TÖBE, C. SCHOLIN, and L.K. MEDLIN
24.1 Introduction	311	(1)
24.2 Ribosomal RNA Sequences as Markers for Phylogenetic Studies and Species Identification	312	(1)
24.3 Fluorescent in Situ Hybridization (FISH) for Identifying Intact Cells	312	(4)
24.3.1 TSA-FISH for Flow Cytometry	314	(1)
24.3.2 TSA-FISH for Solid Phase Cytometry	315	(1)
24.4 Detecting Many Species Simultaneously Using DNA Probe Arrays	316	(4)
24.4.1 Microarrays on Glass Slides and Fluorescence Detection	316	(2)
24.4.2 Handheld Array Device That Uses Electro-Chemical Detection	318	(1)
24.4.3 DNA Probe Arrays for Autonomous Detection of Species Using the Environmental Sample Processor (ESP)	319	(1)
24.5 Conclusions	320	(1)
References	321	(6)
25 Mitigation and Controls of HABs	327	(1)
H.G. Kim
25.1 Introduction	327	(1)
25.2 Mitigation Strategies and Control of HABs	328	(7)
25.2.1 Precautionary Impact Preventions	328	(1)
25.2.2 Direct and Indirect Bloom Controls	329	(5)
25.2.3 Contingency Plans for Fish Culture	334	(1)
25.3 Conclusions	335	(1)
References	335	(6)
Part F Human Impact on Harmful Algae and Harmful Algae Impact on Human Activity
26 The Complex Relationships Between Increases in Fertilization of the Earth, Coastal Eutrophication and Proliferation of Harmful Algal Blooms	341	(62)
P.M. Glibert and J.M. Burkholder
26.1 Introduction	341	(1)
26.2 Global Trends in Population, Agricultural Fertilizer Usage and Implications for Export to Coastal Waters	341	(2)
26.3 Nutrient Limitation versus Eutrophication: Basic Conceptual Framework	343	(1)
26.4 Nutrient Loading, Nutrient Composition, and HABs	344	(3)
26.5 Factors Complicating the Relationship Between Eutrophication and HABs	347	(3)
26.6 Conclusions	350	(1)
References	351	(4)
27 "Top-Down" Predation Control on Marine Harmful Algae	355	(1)
J.T. Turner and E. Granéli
27.1 Introduction	355	(2)
27.2 "Top-down" Predators	357	(2)
27.2.1 Medusae	357	(1)
27.2.2 Ctenophores	358	(1)
27.2.3 Fishes	358	(1)
27.3 Case Studies	359	(3)
27.3.1 Black Sea	359	(1)
27.3.2 Mesocosm Studies	360	(2)
27.4 Conclusions	362	(1)
References	363	(4)
28 Climate Change and Harmful Algal Blooms	367	(1)
B. Dale, M. Edwards, and P. C. Reid
28.1 Introduction	367	(2)
28.2 Evidence from the Past	369	(1)
28.3 Results from Plankton Records	370	(2)
28.4 Results from the Sedimentary Record of Dinoflagellate Cysts	372	(3)
28.5 Conclusions	375	(1)
References	376	(3)
29 Anthropogenic Introductions of Microalgae	379	(1)
G. HALLEGRAEFF and S. GOLLASCH
29.1 Potential Transport Vectors for Microalgae	379	(1)
29.2 Vector Surveys for Microalgae	380	(1)
29.3 Evidence for Successful Establishment of Non-Indigenous Microalgae	381	(2)
29.3.1 Absence in Historic Samples	381	(1)
29.3.2 Sediment Cyst Cores	381	(1)
29.3.3 Increasing Molecular Evidence	382	(1)
29.4 Management Options to Reduce Risk of Introductions	383	(5)
29.4.1 Warning System for HABs in Ballast-Water-Uptake Zones	383	(1)
29.4.2 Ballast Water Exchange Studies on Phytoplankton	384	(2)
29.4.3 Treatment Options	386	(2)
29.5 Conclusions	388	(1)
References	388	(3)
30 The Economic Effects of Harmful Algal Blooms	391	(1)
P. Hoagland and S. Scatasta
30.1 Introduction	391	(1)
30.2 Scientific Concerns	392	(1)
30.3 Economic Concerns	392	(1)
30.4 Why Measure Economic Losses?	393	(1)
30.5 Economic Losses	394	(3)
30.6 Economic Impacts	397	(1)
30.7 Estimates of National Economic Effects	398	(3)
30.8 Conclusions	401	(1)
References	402	(1)
Subject Index	403