The Ecology and Silviculture of Oaks

by Johnson, Paul S.; Shifley, Stephen R.; Rogers, Robert

• ISBN13: 9780851995700
• ISBN10: 0851995705
• Format: Hardcover
• Copyright: 2002-04-18
• Publisher: Stylus Pub Llc

Summary

This book is designed and intended as a source of ideas on how to think about oak forests as responsive ecosystems. Divided into two sections the book focuses on oak ecosystems in the United States as well as providing much application to other regions such as Europe and the Mediterranean. The first section includes chapters on the ecological characteristics and distribution of oak species and the various kinds of oak forests in the United States, differences among them and how they have been classified. The second section includes chapters on site productivity, stand development, silviculture, and growth and yield.

Table of Contents

Preface	xi
Acknowledgements	xiii
Introduction	1	(1)
Conflicting Environmental Philosophies	1	(4)
Silviculture: a Consilient Discipline	5	(2)
References	7	(1)
Part I. Ecology
Oak-dominated Ecosystems	8	(46)
Introduction	8	(1)
The Taxonomy of Oaks	9	(1)
The Geographic Distribution of US Oaks	10	(10)
Species ranges and groupings	10	(4)
Distribution of oaks by hierarchically classified ecoregions	14	(6)
Eastern Oak Forests	20	(20)
The Northern Hardwood Region	20	(6)
The Central Hardwood Region	26	(7)
The Southern Pine-Hardwood Region	33	(3)
The Forest-Prairie Transition Region	36	(4)
Western Oak Forests	40	(8)
The Southwestern Desert-Steppe Region	40	(3)
The Pacific Mediterranean-Marine Region	43	(5)
References	48	(6)
Regeneration Ecology I: Flowering, Fruiting and Reproduction Characteristics	54	(63)
Introduction	54	(1)
Flowering	55	(6)
Male flowers	55	(3)
Female flowers	58	(3)
Factors Affecting Acorn Production	61	(8)
Weather	61	(1)
Premature abscission	62	(2)
Variation in acorn production	64	(5)
Acorn Predation and Dispersal	69	(15)
Insects: destroyers of acorns	70	(7)
Rodents: predation and dispersal	77	(4)
Birds: predation and dispersal	81	(3)
Oak Seedling Establishment	84	(8)
Germination and initial establishment	84	(2)
Early growth	86	(6)
Seedling Sprouts	92	(6)
Shoot dieback and root: shoot ratio	92	(2)
Occurrence of shoot dieback	94	(4)
Stump Sprouts and Related Growth Forms	98	(8)
Definitions and origins	98	(2)
Frequency of sprouting	100	(1)
Sprout growth and mortality	101	(5)
References	106	(11)
Regeneration Ecology II: Population Dynamics	117	(51)
Introduction	117	(1)
Regeneration Strategy	118	(29)
Reproductive mechanisms: seeding and sprouting	118	(3)
Accumulation of oak reproduction	121	(21)
Fluctuation in population density	142	(5)
Regeneration Potential	147	(11)
Regeneration mode	148	(7)
Modelling theory and objectives	155	(2)
Stand-level regenaration models: purpose, problems and limitations	157	(1)
References	158	(10)
Part II. Site Productivity and Stand Developmment
Site Productivity	168	(26)
Introduction	168	(1)
Measures of Site Productivity	169	(2)
Relation of Site Productivity to Ecological Classification	171	(1)
Productivity and Related Self-sustaining Properties of Oak Forests	172	(4)
Effects of timber harvesting on site productivity	173	(2)
Modifying site productivity through fertilization	175	(1)
Methods of Evaluating Site Quality	176	(13)
Site index	176	(9)
Site evaluation alternatives to site index	185	(4)
References	189	(5)
Development of Natural Stands	194	(33)
Introduction	194	(1)
Forest Canopy Layers	194	(1)
Disturbance	195	(4)
Disturbance type	196	(1)
Disturbance size and frequency of occurrence	196	(3)
Development of Even-aged Stands	199	(17)
The stand initiation stage	201	(2)
The stem exclusion stage	203	(4)
The understorey reinitiation stage	207	(8)
The complex stage	215	(1)
Development of Uneven-aged Stands	216	(1)
Disturbance-Recovery Cycles	217	(7)
References	224	(3)
Self-thinning and Stand Density	227	(27)
Introduction	227	(1)
Self-thinning	227	(8)
Reineke's model	227	(2)
The -3/2 rule	229	(6)
Stand Density and Stocking	235	(16)
Terminology	235	(2)
Maximum and minimum growing space	237	(4)
Stand density diagrams	241	(10)
References	251	(3)
Part III. Silviculture, Growth and Yield	254	(235)
Even-aged Silvicultural Methods	254	(81)
Introduction	254	(1)
Natural Regeneration Methods	255	(23)
The clearcutting method	255	(19)
The shelterwood method	274	(3)
The seed tree method	277	(1)
Artificial Regeneration Methods	278	(16)
Oak nursery stock	278	(2)
Oak plantation establishment	280	(4)
Enrichment planting	284	(10)
Intermediate Cuttings	294	(11)
Definitions and theory	294	(1)
Application	295	(10)
Special Problems: Reducing Insect and Disease Impacts	305	(15)
Gypsy moth	305	(9)
Oak decline	314	(2)
Oak wilt	316	(4)
Economic, Environmental and Social Considerations	320	(2)
The clearcutting method	320	(2)
The shelterwood and seed tree methods	322	(1)
References	322	(13)
Uneven-aged Silvicultural Methods	335	(45)
Introduction	335	(2)
The Single-tree Selection Method	337	(28)
Principles of application	337	(5)
Specifying the distribution	342	(10)
Applicability to oak forests	352	(13)
Group Selection Method	365	(7)
Economic, Environmental and Social Considerations	372	(2)
References	374	(6)
Silvicultural Methods for Multi-resource Management	380	(44)
Introduction	380	(1)
Oak Savannas	380	(11)
Extent and characteristics	380	(3)
Disturbance processes	383	(2)
Managing oak savannas	385	(6)
Managing Stands for Acorn Production	391	(12)
Assessing and predicting acorn crops	392	(3)
Effects of tree size and stand characteristics	395	(4)
Guidelines for sustaining acorn production	399	(4)
Old-growth Oak Forests	403	(7)
Extent and characteristics	403	(1)
Silvicultural options	404	(4)
Forests in transition to old growth	408	(1)
Old-growth forests at the landscape scale	409	(1)
Aesthetics	410	(7)
Stand-level aesthetics	411	(4)
Landscape-level aesthetics	415	(2)
References	417	(7)
Growth and Yield	424	(65)
Introduction	424	(1)
Growth of an Oak	425	(14)
Annual phenology	425	(1)
Diameter growth	426	(6)
Height growth	432	(5)
Survival rates	437	(2)
Stand Growth	439	(8)
Growth and yield in even-aged stands	439	(7)
Growth and yield in uneven-aged stands	446	(1)
Growth and Yield Models	447	(12)
Modelling methods	447	(1)
Stand-level models for oaks	448	(3)
Stand table projection models	451	(1)
Individual-tree-level models for oaks	451	(1)
OAKSIM	452	(1)
TWIGS	453	(2)
Forest Vegetation Simulator	455	(1)
Estimating ingrowth	455	(4)
Model evaluation	459	(1)
Volume Equations	459	(1)
Regional Patterns in Oak Yield and Productivity	460	(1)
References	461	(7)
Appendices
Appendix 1. Common and Scientific Names of Species	468	(7)
Appendix 2. Forest Cover Types of Eastern United States Dominated by Oaks or Oaks Mixed with Other Species	475	(5)
Appendix 3. Forest Cover Types of Western United States Dominated by Oaks or Oaks Mixed with Other Species	480	(3)
Appendix 4. Formulae for Converting Site Index for Indiana, Kentucky, Ohio, and West Virginia	483	(1)
Appendix 5. Converting Site Indexes for Four Regions	484	(2)
Appendix 6. Converting Site Indexes, Yellow-poplar to Oak	486	(1)
Appendix 7. Height/dbh Site Index Curves	487	(2)
Index	489