Economic Geology of Natural Gas Hydrate

by Max, M. D.; Johnson, A. H.; Dillon, William P.

• ISBN13: 9781402039713
• ISBN10: 1402039719
• Edition: CD
• Format: Hardcover
• Copyright: 2006-02-15
• Publisher: Kluwer Academic Pub

Summary

This is the first book that attempts to broadly integrate the most recent knowledge in the fields of hydrate nucleation and growth in permafrost regions and marine sediments. Gas hydrate reactant supply, growth models, and implications for pore fill by natural gas hydrate are discussed for both seawater precursors in marine sediments and for permafrost hydrate. These models for forming hydrate concentrations that will constitute targets for exploration are discussed, along with exploration methods. Thermodynamic models for the controlled conversion of hydrate to natural gas, which can be recovered using conventional industry practices, suggest that a number of different types of hydrate occurrence are likely to be practical sources of hydrate natural gas. Current progress in the various aspects of commercial development of hydrate gas deposits are discussed, along with the principal extractive issues that have yet to be resolved. Audience The book will be of interest to petroleum geologists, earth scientists (marine geology and geophysics), government departments and institutions concerned with energy resources. CD-ROM included A CD-ROM is included containing additional figures, and a selection of high quality color images which are printed in black and white in the book itself.

Table of Contents

Preface	xv
Introduction	1	(1)
National Programs for Hydrate Research	1	(11)
Countries with Developed National Hydrate Energy Interests	1	(7)
Countries Showing Early Interest in Hydrate	8	(4)
Terminology of Hydrate and its Processes	12	(2)
From Resource to Reserves	14	(3)
Why Gas Hydrate?	17	(28)
Introduction	17	(2)
Reserves versus Markets	19	(2)
The Case for Unconvenitonal Gas	21	(3)
Meeting Future Demand	24	(2)
Options for Increasing North American Gas Supply	26	(5)
Increased Conventional Gas Development	26	(2)
Increased LNG Imports	28	(2)
Concerns for LNG	30	(1)
Looking to the Future	31	(3)
The Case for Gas Hydrate	34	(1)
Current Knowledge of Gas Hydrate Occurrence	35	(2)
Exploration for Commercial Gas Hydrate Prospects	37	(6)
Overview of Deepwater Production	37	(2)
Models for Recovery	39	(3)
Business Issues	42	(1)
The Gas Economy: Enhanced Efficiency and Security	43	(1)
Conclusions	44	(1)
Physical Chemical Characteristics of Natural Gas Hydrate	45	(60)
Introduction	45	(2)
Crystalline Gas Hydrate	47	(3)
Formation of Gas Hydrate	50	(5)
The Growth Dynamic	50	(4)
Hydrate Growth Inhibition	54	(1)
Nucleation	55	(4)
Growth	59	(8)
Effects of Diffusion	61	(1)
Growth from Mixtures of HFG	62	(1)
Hydrate Growth from Different Types of Solution	63	(3)
Example of Hydrate Growth	66	(1)
Hydrate Dissociation and Dissolution	67	(12)
Hydrate Dissociation	68	(2)
Hydrate Dissolution	70	(2)
Dissociation and Dissolution: A Surface Phenomenon	72	(2)
Hydrate Dissolution in a Nearly Saturated Environment	74	(1)
``Self Preservation''	74	(4)
The Phase Boundary and Apparent Stability of Hydrate	78	(1)
Hydrate Growth Models	79	(14)
Circulation of HFG Enriched Groundwater	80	(2)
Diffusion in Solution	82	(3)
Diffusion Through Hydrate and Other Solids	85	(1)
Formation in Gaseous HFG Through Water Vapor Diffusion	86	(4)
Variable Supersaturation	90	(2)
Direct Contact between Gaseous HFG and Water	92	(1)
Kinetic Considerations	93	(1)
Best Conditions for Hydrate Concentration	94	(11)
Appendix A. Background Chemistry	95	(1)
Phase Diagrams	95	(2)
Henry's Law	97	(1)
Number of Water Molecules per Dissolved HFG Molecule	98	(1)
Chemical Potential of Saline Hydrate Inhibition	98	(1)
Mol of Gas Hydrate	99	(1)
Diffusion Mechanism for Hydrate Breakdown	100	(3)
Concentration	103	(1)
Chemical Equations	103	(2)
Oceanic Gas Hydrate Character, Distribution, and Potential for Concentration	105	(26)
The Character of Oceanic Gas Hydrate	105	(1)
Where Gas Hydrate is Found	105	(5)
Where is Gas Hydrate Stable?	105	(3)
Where Do We find Gas Hydrate in Nature	108	(2)
Identification of Gas Hydrate in Nature	110	(8)
Measuring Gas Hydrate in Wells and Cores	110	(4)
Remote Sensing of Gas Hydrate	114	(4)
Concentration of Gas Hydrate in Nature	118	(12)
Two Modes of Gas Hydrate Concentration	118	(1)
Diffuse Gas-flow Model	119	(3)
Focused Gas-flow Model	122	(1)
Lateral Variations that Create Trapping of Gas and Gas Hydrate Concentrations	123	(1)
Structural Trapping	123	(2)
Physical Variations that Cause Gas Hydrate Concentration	125	(1)
Fault-controlled Gas Flow	125	(1)
Influence of Salt Diapirs	126	(2)
Tectonic Uplift	128	(1)
Tectonic Subsidence	129	(1)
Conclusion	130	(1)
Natural Gas Hydrate: A Diagenetic Economic Mineral Resource	131	(60)
Introduction	131	(2)
The Source of Hydrate: Generation of Hydrocarbon Gases	133	(5)
The Rock and Sediment Host	138	(7)
Porosity	138	(2)
Permeability	140	(2)
Secondary Porosity and Permeability	142	(3)
Hydrate Growth Regimes	145	(12)
Hydrate Mineralization: The Role of Water in Porous Strata	145	(5)
Permafrost Hydrate: Water Vapor Diffusion in an HFG Atmosphere	150	(6)
Implications for Concentration of Hydrate near the Base of the GHSZ	156	(1)
Gas Hydrate: A Diagenetic Economic Mineral Deposit	157	(6)
Contrasts between Conventional Gas and Gas Hydrate Deposits	158	(3)
Hydrate Mineralization	161	(2)
Classification of Gas Hydrate Deposits	163	(3)
High Grade Deposits	163	(2)
Low Grade Deposits	165	(1)
Migration of Hydrate-Forming Gas Into and Through the HSZ	166	(8)
Chimneys	168	(1)
Vents	169	(5)
Implications for Hydrate Concentrations not Directly Associated with a Seafloor-simulating BGHS	174	(6)
Examples of Stratabound Mineral Deposits	180	(1)
Conclusions	181	(10)
Appendix B1	182	(9)
State of Development of Gas Hydrate as an Economic Resource	191	(16)
Introduction	191	(1)
Mallik	192	(3)
Background	193	(1)
The 1998 Mallik Program	193	(1)
The 2002 Mallik Program	193	(2)
Planned follow-up and Options	195	(1)
Nankai	195	(3)
Background	196	(1)
1999-2000 Nankai Drilling Program	196	(1)
2004 Nankai Drilling Program	197	(1)
Future work	198	(1)
Gulf of Mexico	198	(3)
Background	198	(1)
Chevron Texaco Joint Industry Program	199	(1)
MMS Gulf of Mexico Gas Hydrate Assessment	200	(1)
Alaska	201	(1)
Background	201	(1)
BP Exploration Alaska	202	(1)
Cascadia Margin	202	(2)
Background	202	(1)
ODP Leg 204	202	(2)
IODP Expedition 311	204	(1)
Messoyakha	204	(1)
India	204	(1)
Comment on Hydrate Research: Objectives and Progress	205	(1)
Conclusions	206	(1)
Oceanic Gas Hydrate Localization, Exploration, and Extraction	207	(42)
Introduction	207	(1)
Gas Hydrate Provincing	208	(1)
Semi-Quatitative Evaluation of Hydrate Likelihood	209	(2)
Remote Sensing for the presence of Oceanic Hydrate	211	(10)
Seismic Effects of Hydrate Formation and Exploration	212	(2)
Blanking	214	(2)
Accentuation	216	(1)
Seafloor Acoustic Imagery	217	(1)
Sulfate Reduction Identification	217	(1)
Natural Gas Analysis and Application	218	(1)
Heat Flow / Vent-related Seafloor Features	219	(1)
Electromagnetic Methods	220	(1)
Exploration for Natural Gas Hydrate Deposits	221	(1)
Issues concerning Recovery of Gas from Hydrate Deposits	221	(20)
Reservoir Characterization	222	(2)
Contrasts Between Hydrate and Conventional Gas Reservoirs	224	(1)
Producing Gas from Oceanic Hydrate In-Situ	225	(2)
Extraction Methodology	227	(1)
Drilling	228	(4)
Artificially Induced Permeability	232	(4)
Hydrate and Natural Fracturing	236	(2)
Volume-Pressure Relationships for Hydrate Dissociation at Depth	238	(3)
Safety	241	(1)
Unconventional Gas Recovery from Hydrate	241	(7)
Dissolution	242	(4)
Low-Grade Deposit Special Issues	246	(2)
Conclusions	248	(1)
Gas Production from Unconfined Class 2 Oceanic Hydrate Accumulations	249	(18)
Introduction	249	(1)
Background	249	(1)
Description of the Geologic System	250	(2)
Objectives	252	(1)
Case 1: Gas Production from a Single-Well System	252	(13)
Geometry and Conditions of the System	252	(1)
Domain Discrimination and Simulation Specifics	253	(1)
Results of the Single Well Study	254	(3)
Effect of the Initial SH in the HBL	257	(1)
Case 2: Gas Production from a Five-Spot Well	258	(1)
Geometry and Conditions of the System	258	(1)
Domain Discrimination and Simulation Specifics	259	(1)
Results of the Five-Spot Study	259	(6)
Summary and Conclusions	265	(1)
Acknowledgements	266	(1)
Regulatory and Permitting Environment for Gas Hydrate	267	(22)
Introduction	267	(1)
Regulatory and Permitting Framework	268	(15)
Territorial Sea	268	(1)
The 200 Nautical Mile Exclusive Zone	269	(1)
The Continental Shelf	270	(7)
The Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf	277	(2)
Rights of the Coastal State over the Continental Shelf	279	(1)
Legal Status of the Superjacent Waters and Air Space and the Rights and Freedoms of Other States	279	(1)
Submarine Cables and Pipelines on the Continental Shelf	280	(1)
Artificial Islands, Installation and Structures on the Continental Shelf	280	(1)
Drilling on the Continental Shelf	281	(1)
Payments and Contributions with Respect to the Exploitation of the Continental Shelf Beyond 200 Nautical Miles	281	(1)
Delimitation of the Continental Shelf Between States with Opposite or Adjacent Coasts.	282	(1)
Tunneling	283	(1)
Statement of Understanding Concerning a Specific Method to be Used in Establishing the Outer Edge of the Continental Margin	283	(1)
The Area Beyond the Limits of National Jurisdiction	284	(3)
The Relationship of the Central Government to Local Authorities	287	(1)
Conclusion	288	(1)
Author Comment	288	(1)
Conclusions and Summary	289	(8)
Conceptualization of the Hydrate Gas Resource	289	(2)
Gas Hydrate; A New Hydrocarbon Resource at the Right Time	291	(1)
Gas Hydrate Characterization	292	(2)
Permafrost Hydrate	292	(1)
Oceanic Hydrate	293	(1)
Hydrate Natural Gas Quality	293	(1)
Hydrate Exploration and Recovery	294	(1)
Commercial Hydrate Natural Gas Development	295	(2)
Glossary of Terms	297	(12)
Selected References	309	(30)
Miscellaneous Information	339	(2)
Author Address List	339	(1)
Gas Hydrate Fresh Water Reservoirs	340	(1)
Earliest Record of Artificially Produced Gas Hydrate	341