Ecosystem Change and Public Health: A Global Perspective

by Aron, Joan L.

• ISBN13: 9780801865824
• ISBN10: 0801865824
• Edition: 1st
• Format: Paperback
• Copyright: 2001-05-01
• Publisher: JOHNS HOPKINS UNIV PRESS

Summary

"The purpose of this textbook on global ecosystem change and human health is twofold:(1) to raise awareness of changes in human health related to global ecosystem change and (2) to expand the scope of the traditional curriculum in environmental health to include the interactions of major environmental forces and public health on a global scale."--from the Introduction Ecosystem Change and Public Health focuses on how human health is affected by global ecosystem changes. It is the first textbook devoted to this emerging field, offering a global perspective on research methods and emphasizing empirical investigations of health outcomes in combination with integrated assessment for policy development. The book covers such topics as global climate change, stratospheric ozone depletion, water resources management, and ecology and infectious disease. Case studies of cholera, malaria, the effects of water resources, and global climate change and air pollution illustrate the analysis and methodology. The book also includes a resource center describing places to start searches on the World Wide Web, guidelines for finding and evaluating information, suggested study projects, and strategies for encouraging communication among course participants.

Author Biography

Joan L. Aron, Ph.D. is president of Science Communication Studies and an associate in the Department of Epidemiology at the Johns Hopkins School of Hygiene and Public Health. Jonathan A. Patz, M.D., M.P.H. is an assistant professor and director of the Program on Health Effects of Global Environmental Change in the Department of Environmental Health Sciences at the Johns Hopkins School of Hygiene and Public Health.

Table of Contents

List of Contributors	xiii
Foreword	xv
Carlos Morel
Preface and Acknowledgments	xvii
Introduction: How to Use This Book	xix
Purpose	xix
The Target Audience	xx
Multiple Ways to Use the Chapters	xx
Electronic References and Information Literacy	xxi
The Format of Suggested Study Projects	xxii
Conclusion	xxiii
PART I: APPROACHES	1	(162)
Information on Issues of Global Change	3	(14)
Erika G. Feulner
The Interaction of Natural and Anthropogenic Dynamics	4	(1)
Research Infrastructures	5	(3)
The Decline of Natural Resources	8	(3)
Air and Climate
Water
Land
Energy
Population Growth	11	(3)
Urbanization
Migration
Economic Development	14	(2)
Industrialization
Agricultural Development
Conclusion	16	(1)
Epidemiological Study Designs	17	(43)
Alfred A. Buck
Joan L. Aron
Descriptive Measures of Health Status	19	(6)
Analytical Approaches	25	(24)
Ecological Studies
Cross-sectional Studies
Case-control Studies
Cohort Studies
Special Issues for Studies of the Transmission of Infectious Disease
Risks and Rates
Potential Sources of Error in Epidemiological Studies
The Sequential Application of Epidemiological Methods	49	(6)
Conclusion	55	(1)
Suggested Study Projects	55	(5)
Geographic Information Systems	60	(40)
Joan L. Aron
Gregory E. Glass
The Basic Components of Geographic Information Systems	61	(4)
A Generalized Thematic Mapping System
Vector and Raster Data Formats
A Relational Database Management System
Related Technologies	65	(10)
Remote Sensing
The Global Positioning System
Geographic Base File Systems
Methods for Spatial Data Analysis	75	(9)
Map Generation
Map Analysis
Map Overlay and Comparison
The Quality of Data	84	(3)
Spatial Accuracy and Resolution
Temporal Accuracy and Resolution
Thematic Accuracy and Resolution
Consistency and Completeness
Issues in Implementation	87	(3)
Sources of Data
Computer Hardware and Software
Human Resources
Conclusion	90	(2)
Suggested Study Projects	92	(8)
The Science/Policy Interface	100	(16)
Jonathan M. Samet
Science/Policy Interfaces	101	(3)
Models and the Science/Policy Interface	104	(3)
Quantitative Risk Assessment	107	(5)
Risk Assessment and Global Ecosystem Change	112	(1)
Conclusion	113	(1)
Suggested Study Projects	113	(3)
Integrated Assessment	116	(47)
Joan L. Aron
J. Hugh Ellis
Benjamin F. Hobbs
The History of Integrated Assessment Models	119	(2)
The Building of Decision-Focused Integrated Assessment Models	121	(2)
A Taxonomy of Approaches to Integrated Assessment Modeling	123	(13)
Simulation versus Optimization
Linearity versus Nonlinearity
Single versus Multiple Objectives
Deterministic versus Stochastic Approaches
Static versus Dynamic Approaches
Visualization and System-User Dynamics
Integrated Assessment as a Participatory Process	136	(3)
Evaluation of the Effectiveness of Integrated Assessment	139	(5)
The Integrated Assessment of Ecosystem Change and Public Health	144	(9)
The Building of a Framework
Multiple Benefits and Costs
The Placement of value on Benefits and Costs
The Integrated Management of Ecosystems and Public Health
Conclusion	153	(1)
Suggested Study Projects	154	(9)
PART II: ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGES	163	(162)
Human Populations in the Shared Environment	165	(23)
Dennis C. Pirages
Paul J. Runci
Robert H. Sprinkle
Social Evolution, Progress, and the Environment	165	(5)
The Effects of Industrialization
An Emerging Global System
Anthropogenic Changes and Future Human Health	170	(8)
Food Production and Health in the Less-Industrialized World
Human Population Movements
Urbanization and the Rise of Megacities
Demographic Change and Health in the Industrialized World
International Cooperation for Global Public Health	178	(5)
Conclusion	183	(1)
Suggested Study Projects	183	(5)
The Changing Chemistry of Earth's Atmosphere	188	(45)
Steven A. Lloyd
Stratospheric Ozone Depletion	190	(19)
The Development of the Stratospheric Ozone Issue: Supersonic Transports
Another Threat to the Ozone Layer: Chlorofluorocarbons
The Smoking Gun: The Antarctic Ozone Hole
The Global Extent of Stratospheric Ozone Depletion
Ozone Loss in the Arctic
Modeling the Effects on Human Health of Stratospheric Ozone Depletion
The Effects of UV-B Radiation on Human Skin
The Effects of UV-8 Radiation on the Human Eye
Chlorofluorocarbon Regulation: An International Policy Success Story
The Future of the Earth's Ozone Layer
Acid Deposition	209	(4)
The Consequences of Acid Precipitation
Atmospheric Aerosols
Urban Smog Formation / Tropospheric Ozone	213	(5)
Tropospheric Pollutants
Tropospheric Ozone Formation
Computer Modeling of Regional Air Pollution
Enhanced Global Warming	218	(9)
Climate Control and Climate Change
Greenhouse Gases
Issues of Current Controversy
Feedback Mechanisms
Conclusion	227	(1)
Suggested Study Projects	227	(6)
An Earth Science Perspective on Global Change	233	(18)
George W. Fisher
The Energy Cycle	234	(3)
The Water Cycle	237	(5)
The Carbon Cycle	242	(4)
Ecosystem Dynamics	246	(2)
Conclusion: An Ecological Perspective on Health	248	(1)
Suggested Study Projects	249	(2)
Water Resources Management	251	(32)
Nicolaas J. P. M. de Groot
The Hydrological Cycle	252	(2)
Determining How Much Water Is Available	254	(4)
The Quality of Water	258	(4)
Increasing Competition among Users of Fresh Water	262	(1)
Human Intervention in the Terrestrial Water Cycle	263	(3)
Agricultural Activities and Forest Management	266	(4)
Agricultural Activities
Forest Management
Urban Activities	270	(3)
The Overexploitation of Groundwater Resources	273	(1)
Pressure from Climatic Change	274	(5)
Precipitation and Evapotranspiration
The Rise in Sea Level
Conclusion	279	(1)
Suggested Study Projects	279	(4)
Ecology and Infectious Disease	283	(42)
Mark L. Wilson
Ecological Characteristics and Processes Influencing Transmission	285	(6)
The Interaction of Abiotic and Biotic Factors
Temporal and Spatial Scale and Variation
Ecological Zones and the Global Distribution of Diseases
Population Ecology and Behavior
Immunity and Transmission
The Diversity and Complexity of Transmission Cycles
Directly Transmitted Anthroponoses	291	(3)
Directly Transmitted Zoonoses	294	(4)
Environmental Factors Determining Transmission
Reservoir Population Ecology and Transmission
Indirectly Transmitted Anthroponoses	298	(4)
Environmental Factors Determining Transmission
Human Ecology and Transmission
Indirectly Transmitted Zoonoses	302	(4)
Environmental Factors Determining Transmission
The Ecology of Reservoir-Vector-Human Interactions
Ecological Change and Emerging Diseases	306	(8)
Foundations of the Emergence of Disease
Newly Recognized Diseases
Expanding Distributions
Increased Local Incidence
Increased Severity, Duration, or Resistance to Treatment
Evaluation of the Emergence of Disease
Implications for Control and Risk Reduction	314	(3)
Ecological Pattern, Uncertainty, and Prediction
Treatment, Prevention, and Control
A Conceptual Framework for Integrated Control
Knowledge and Research Needs	317	(2)
Ecoepidemiological Data
Directed Fundamental Research
New Perspectives and Methods
Conclusion	319	(1)
Suggested Study Projects	319	(6)
PART III: CASE STUDIES	325	(106)
Cholera and Global Ecosystems	327	(26)
Anwar Huq
R. Bradley Sack
Rita R. Colwell
The History of Cholera	328	(3)
The First Six Pandemics
The Seventh Pandemic and Early Signs of an Eighth Pandemic
Old and New Beliefs about How Cholera Occurs	331	(1)
An Update on the Ecology of Vibrio cholerae	332	(6)
A Summary of the Descriptive Epidemiological Aspects of Cholera	338	(1)
Geographic Examples of the Behavior of Cholera	339	(4)
Bangladesh
Africa
Latin America
The United States and Australia
The Control of Cholera	343	(3)
Conclusion	346	(1)
Suggested Study Projects	347	(6)
Malaria and Global Ecosystem Change	353	(26)
Joan L. Aron
Clive J. Shiff
Alfred A. Buck
Malaria in Africa	357	(7)
Malaria in Zimbabwe
Malaria in Gambia and Niger
Malaria in Sri Lanka	364	(5)
Malaria in Brazil	369	(2)
Malaria in the United States	371	(2)
Conclusion	373	(1)
Suggested Study Projects	373	(6)
Global Climate Change and Air Pollution: Interactions and Their Effects on Human Health	379	(30)
Jonathan A. Patz
John M. Balbus
A Historical Perspective on Air Pollution	380	(4)
From Local to Regional to Global
Transboundary Air Pollution
Trends in Air Pollutants and Greenhouse Gases
Fossil Fuels: The Common Source of Air Pollutants and Greenhouse Gases	384	(4)
Climate Change and Levels of Air Pollutants	388	(9)
Secondary Air Pollutants
The Influence of Weather on Ozone Formation
The Influence of Weather on Ozone Transport
The Health Effects of Ozone
Acid Rain
The Health Effects of Sulfur Dioxide
Potential Effects of Climate Change on Air Pollution in the United States
Modeling Studies of Air Quality and Climate Change
Climate Variability, Biomass, Air Quality, and Health: Forest Fires and Allergens
The Synergy between Heat Stress and Pollutants Affecting Health	397	(2)
Possible Pathways of the Effect of Global Climate Change on Public Health	399	(2)
The Rise in Temperature
Extremes in the Hydrological Cycle
The Rise in Sea Level
The Relationship with Stratospheric Ozone Depletion
Conclusion	401	(1)
Suggested Study Projects	402	(7)
Too Little, Too Much: How the Quantity of Water Affects Human Health	409	(22)
Les Roberts
Ulisses E. C. Confalonieri
Joan L. Aron
Extreme Water Scarcity and Mortality in a Refugee Population in Goma, Zaire	410	(5)
Flooding and Health in Brazil	415	(4)
Consequences of the Diversion of Water	419	(7)
Ecological Deterioration on a Massive Scale in the Aral Sea Basin
Exposure to Dust in the Great Basin Unified Air Pollution Control District of California
Conclusion	426	(1)
Suggested Study Projects	426	(5)
A Stimulating Inquiry: Textbooks and Information Literacy in the internet Environment	431	(6)
Erika G. Feulner
The Traditional Role of the Textbook	431	(1)
Changes in the Learning Environment	431	(1)
The New Role of the Textbook	432	(1)
Mental Skills Development	433	(1)
Information Literacy on the Internet	433	(3)
Evaluating Information
Citing Electronic Information
Browsing the Web
Interactivity and Communication	436	(1)
B The Resource Center, compiled	437	(18)
Erika G. Feulner
Annotated Websites	438	(10)
U.S. Government Agencies
United States-based Organizations
International Organizations
Focus on Linkages
Reinforcement of Interdisciplinary Perspectives
Topically Arranged Websites	448	(2)
Atmospheric Changes---Climate
Land Use---Agriculture
Water
Population---Urbanization-Migration
Environmental Policies
Chapters Listing URLs
Online Directories and Library Services	450	(5)
Directories
Library Services
List of Abbreviations	455	(6)
Glossary	461	(8)
Joan L. Aron
Mark L. Wilson
Index	469