Educational Research: A Guide To the Process

by Wallen, Norman E.; Fraenkel, Jack R.

• ISBN13: 9780805832808
• ISBN10: 0805832807
• Edition: 2nd
• Format: Paperback
• Copyright: 2000-10-01
• Publisher: Lawrence Erlbau

Summary

Educational Research: A Guide to the Processis a different kind of research text. It emphasizes theprocessof research, that is, what researchers actually do as they go about designing and carrying out their research activities. Rather than passively reading about research operations, it promotes content mastery by using a three-step pedagogical model that involves: a manageable chunk of text, a comprehension or application exercise, and author feedback on the exercise. The text contains approximately 150 of these exercise-feedback units. The second edition has been thoroughly updated, expanded from 15 to 20 chapters, and reorganized into two parts. Part I covers basic aspects of the research process, provides an example of a student research proposal, and shows how to evaluate a research report. Part II provides a separate chapter for each research methodology, including two chapters on qualitative research. Other noteworthy changes include more annotated studies and more visual illustrations of statistical and research methods. THIS COPY USED FOR TEXTBOOK MAILER...NOT TO BE USED IN GENERAL CATALOGS Thoroughly class-tested for over 15 years with some 2000 students, this outstanding text features: *numerous thought questions that focus on important ideas, *actual studies, followed by author critiques so students can test their ideas against those of the authors, *activities that allow students to actually experience the research methodologies discussed, and *examples of how the various research methodologies discussed might be applied in real-life settings.

Author Biography

Jack R. Fraenkel is currently Professor of Interdisciplinary Studies in Education and Director of the Research and Development Center, College of Education, San Francisco State University.

Table of Contents

Preface	xvii
PART ONE BASIC CONCEPTS OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH
Introduction to Educational Research	3	(7)
Empirical Versus Nonempirical Research	6	(1)
Basic Versus Applied Research	7	(1)
Summary	8	(1)
Key Concepts Developed in This Chapter	9	(1)
What Should I Understand at This Point?	9	(1)
What's Next?	9	(1)
The Research Question	10	(19)
Stating a question	12	(2)
Refining the Question	14	(8)
Feasibility	15	(1)
Clarity	15	(5)
Significance	20	(2)
Ethics and Research	22	(5)
Protecting Participants From Harm	23	(1)
Ensuring Confidentiality of Research Data	23	(1)
Should Subjects Be Deceived?	24	(3)
Summary	27	(1)
Key Concepts Developed in This Chapter	27	(1)
What Should I Understand at This Point?	28	(1)
What's Next?	28	(1)
Variables and Hypotheses	29	(19)
Relationships	29	(3)
Variables	32	(7)
Measured and Categorical Variables	32	(5)
Independent and Dependent Variables	37	(1)
Extraneous Variables and Constants	38	(1)
Hypotheses	39	(7)
Advantages and Disadvantages of Stating Questions as Hypotheses	40	(4)
Directional Versus Nondirectional Hypotheses	44	(2)
Summary	46	(1)
Key Concepts Developed in This Chapter	46	(1)
What Should I Understand at This Point?	46	(1)
What's Next?	47	(1)
Reviewing the Literature	48	(33)
Types of References	48	(1)
General References	48	(1)
Secondary Sources	49	(1)
Primary Sources	49	(1)
Steps Involved in a Literature Review	49	(16)
A Computer Search of the Literature	65	(3)
An Example of a Computer Search	68	(4)
Researching the World Wide Web	72	(4)
Meta-Analysis	76	(1)
Try a Literature Review of Your Own	77	(1)
Summary	78	(1)
Key Concepts Developed in This	79	(1)
What Should I Understand at This Point?	79	(1)
What's Next?	79	(2)
Instrumentation	81	(25)
The Process of Instrument Development: An Example	81	(3)
The Rating Scale	84	(2)
Reliability and Validity	86	(1)
The Observation Record	87	(1)
More About Reliability and Validity	88	(14)
Validity	88	(9)
Reliability	97	(5)
Checking Reliability and Validity	102	(2)
Summary	104	(1)
Key Concepts Developed in This	104	(1)
What Should I Understand at This Point?	105	(1)
What's Next?	105	(1)
More on Instrumentation	106	(19)
The Structured Interview Schedule	106	(3)
Ability Tests	109	(5)
Projective Tests	114	(5)
Locating a Suitable Instrument	119	(3)
Developing Your Own Instrument	122	(1)
Summary	123	(1)
Key Concepts Developed in This Chapter	123	(1)
What Should I Understand at This Point?	123	(1)
What's Next?	124	(1)
Samples and Population	125	(29)
The Process of Selecting a Sample	125	(3)
Samples Versus Populations	128	(3)
Defining the Population	128	(2)
Target Versus Accessible Populations	130	(1)
Random Versus Nonrandom Sampling	131	(10)
Simple Random Sampling	132	(3)
Stratified Random Sampling	135	(1)
Cluster Random Sampling	135	(2)
Two-Stage Random Sampling	137	(1)
Convenience Sampling	137	(2)
Purposive Sampling	139	(2)
Sample Size	141	(1)
A Cautionary Note About Sampling	142	(1)
Generalizing	143	(1)
Population Generalizability	143	(2)
When Random Sampling Is Not Feasible	145	(1)
Ecological Generalizability	145	(2)
Another Example of Sampling	147	(5)
Summary	152	(1)
Key Concepts Developed in This Chapter	152	(1)
What Should I Understand at This Point?	153	(1)
What's Next?	153	(1)
Internal Validity	154	(26)
Planning the Procedures of a Study	154	(1)
The ``Design'' of a Study	155	(2)
The Meaning of Internal Validity	157	(2)
Some General Threats to Internal Validity	159	(15)
Subject Characteristics	159	(1)
Loss of Subjects	160	(2)
Location	162	(1)
Instrument Decay	163	(1)
Data Collector Characteristics	164	(1)
Data Collector Bias	165	(1)
Testing	166	(2)
Extraneous Events	168	(1)
Maturation	169	(1)
Attitude of Subjects	170	(2)
Regression	172	(1)
Implementation	173	(1)
Two Studies to Examine	174	(4)
An Innovative Curriculum	174	(2)
The Open Classroom	176	(2)
Summary	178	(1)
Key Concepts Developed in This Chapter	178	(1)
What Should I Understand at This Point	178	(1)
What's Next?	179	(1)
Controlling Threats to Internal Validity	180	(23)
Experimental Research	180	(3)
The Control or Comparison Group	180	(1)
Manipulation of the Independent Variable	181	(1)
Randomization	182	(1)
General Methods of Controlling Threats to Internal Validity	183	(6)
Subject Characteristics	184	(1)
Loss of Subjects	184	(1)
Location	185	(1)
Instrument Decay	186	(1)
Data Collector Characteristics	186	(1)
Data Collector Bias	186	(1)
Testing	187	(1)
Extraneous Events	187	(1)
Maturation	187	(1)
Attitude of Subjects	188	(1)
Regression	188	(1)
Implementation	188	(1)
Two Studies Revisited	189	(4)
An Innovative Curriculum	189	(1)
The Open Classroom	189	(4)
Guidelines for Handling Internal Validity: Comparison-Group Studies	193	(4)
Guidelines for Handling Internal Validity: Correlational Studies	197	(4)
Summary	201	(1)
Key Concepts Developed in This Chapter	201	(1)
What Should I Understand at This Point?	202	(1)
What's Next?	202	(1)
Data Analysis	203	(34)
Scores	203	(1)
Statistics for Comparison-Group Studies	204	(8)
Averages	204	(2)
Frequency Polygons	206	(5)
Quartiles and the Five-Number Summary	211	(1)
Statistics for Correlational Studies	212	(9)
Interpreting Scatterplots	214	(1)
Correlation Coefficients	214	(6)
Other Correlational Techniques	220	(1)
Studies Involving Only Categorical Variables	221	(4)
Assessing the Magnitude of a Relationship	225	(2)
Inferential Statistics	227	(5)
Statistical Matching	232	(2)
Specific Inferential Statistics	234	(1)
Summary	235	(1)
Key Concepts Developed in This	236	(1)
What Should I Understand at This Point?	236	(1)
What's Next?	236	(1)
The Research Proposal	237	(21)
An Example of a Student's Research Proposal	238	(10)
A Second Example of a Student's Research Proposal	248	(8)
Summary	256	(1)
What Should I Understand at This Point?	256	(1)
What's Next?	257	(1)
Critiquing Research Reports	258	(21)
Criteria for Evaluating Research Reports	258	(2)
Results and Discussion	259	(1)
A Critique of a Research Report	260	(15)
Summary	275	(1)
Key Concepts Developed in This Chapter	275	(1)
What Should I Understand at This Point?	276	(1)
What's Next?	276	(3)
PART TWO RESEARCH METHODOLOGIES
Experimental Research	279	(28)
The Nature of Experimental Research	279	(1)
True Experiments	279	(1)
Quasi-Experiments	280	(1)
Types of Experiments	280	(7)
Weak Experimental Designs	280	(2)
True Experimental Designs	282	(1)
Quasi-Experimental Designs	283	(4)
Examples of How Research Could Be Done in Schools: Investigating the Teaching of Science Concepts by Means of an Experiment	287	(2)
An Example of Experimental Research: Effects on High School Students of Conflict-Resolution Training Integrated Into English Literature	289	(14)
Try the Method Yourself: Conduct an Experiment	303	(3)
Summary	306	(1)
Key Concepts Developed in This Chapter	306	(1)
What Should I Understand at This Point?	306	(1)
What's Next?	306	(1)
Single-Subject Research	307	(23)
The Nature of Single-Subject Research	307	(1)
Single-Subject Designs	308	(3)
Other Single-Subject Designs	311	(2)
Graphing Single-Subject Designs	313	(1)
The Importance of Replicating Single-Subject Studies	314	(1)
Examples of How Research Could Be Done in Schools: Studying the Effects of Time-Out on a Student's Disruptive Behavior by Means of a Single-Subject Experiment	314	(1)
An Example of Single-Subject Research: Reducing Indices of Unhappiness Among Individuals with Profound Multiple Disabilities During Therapeutic Exercise Routines	315	(13)
Try the Method Yourself: Analyze Some Single-Subject Data	328	(1)
Summary	329	(1)
Key Concepts Developed in This Chapter	329	(1)
What Should I Understand at This Point?	329	(1)
What's Next?	329	(1)
Causal-Comparative Research	330	(19)
The Nature of Causal-Comparative Research	330	(5)
Similarities and Differences Between Causal-Comparative and Experimental Research	333	(2)
Examples of How Research Could Be Done in Schools: Comparing Two Different Ways of Teaching Chemistry by Means of a Causal-Comparative Study	335	(1)
An Example of Causal-Comparative Research: Moral Reasoning and Religious Belief: Does Content Influence Structure?	336	(11)
Try the Method Yourself: Analyze Some Causal-Comparative Data	347	(1)
Summary	348	(1)
Key Concepts Developed in This Chapter	348	(1)
What Should I Understand at This Point?	348	(1)
What's Next?	348	(1)
Correlational Research	349	(27)
The Nature of Correlational Research	349	(1)
Why Do Correlational Research?	350	(4)
Explanatory Studies	350	(1)
Prediction Studies	351	(3)
Basic Steps in Correlational Research	354	(6)
Problem Selection	354	(1)
Sample	354	(1)
Instruments	355	(1)
Design and Procedures	355	(1)
Data Collection	356	(1)
Data Analysis and Interpretation	356	(1)
Evaluating Threats to Internal Validity	357	(3)
What Do Correlation Coefficients Tell Us?	360	(1)
A Few Thoughts About Causation	361	(1)
Examples of How Research Could Be Done in Schools: Predicting by Means of a Correlational Study Which Kinds of Students Are Likely to Have Trouble Learning Algebra	361	(1)
An Example of Correlational Research: Help-Seeking Behavior of Native American Indian High School Students	362	(12)
Try the Method Yourself: Analyze Some Correlational Data	374	(1)
Summary	375	(1)
Key Concepts Developed in This Chapter	375	(1)
What Should I Understand at This Point?	375	(1)
What's Next?	375	(1)
Survey Research	376	(32)
The Nature of Survey Research	376	(1)
Survey or Interview?	377	(1)
Why Conduct Surveys?	377	(1)
Types of Surveys	378	(1)
Cross-Sectional Surveys	378	(1)
Longitudinal Surveys	378	(1)
Survey Research and Correlational Research	379	(1)
Steps in Survey Research	379	(7)
Problem Definition	379	(1)
Identification of the Target Population	380	(1)
Mode of Data Collection	381	(1)
Selection of the Sample	382	(1)
Preparation of the Instrument	383	(1)
Training of Interviewers	384	(1)
Using an Interview to Measure Ability	385	(1)
Nonresponse	386	(3)
Total Nonresponse	386	(2)
Item Nonresponse	388	(1)
Problems in the Instrumentation Process in Survey Research	389	(1)
Evaluating Threats to Internal Validity in Survey Research	390	(1)
Data Analysis in Survey Research	390	(1)
Examples of How Research Could Be Done in Schools: Determining What Students Like About School by Means of a Survey	391	(1)
An Example of Survey Research: Literature Preferences of Fourth Graders	392	(13)
Try the Method Yourself: Analyze Some Survey Data	405	(1)
Summary	406	(1)
Key Concepts Developed in This Chapter	406	(1)
What Should I Understand at This Point?	406	(1)
What's Next?	407	(1)
Content Analysis Research	408	(24)
The Nature of Content Analysis	408	(1)
What Does Content Analysis Allow Us to Study?	409	(1)
Some Applications	410	(1)
Steps Involved in Content Analysis	411	(7)
Decide on the Specific Objectives	411	(1)
Define Terms	411	(1)
Specify the Unit of Analysis	411	(1)
Locate Relevant Data	411	(1)
Develop a Rationale	412	(1)
Develop a Sampling Plan	412	(1)
Formulate Coding Categories	412	(5)
Data Analysis	417	(1)
Using the Computer in Content Analysis	418	(1)
Advantages of Content Analysis	418	(1)
Disadvantages of Content Analysis	419	(1)
Examples of How Research Could Be Done in Schools: Checking for Bias in English Anthologies by Means of a Content Analysis	420	(1)
An Example of a Content Analysis: The Portrayal of Older People in Award-Winning Literature for Children	421	(8)
Try the Method Yourself: Do a Content Analysis	429	(1)
Summary	430	(1)
Key Concepts Developed in This	431	(1)
What Should I Understand at This Point?	431	(1)
What's Next?	431	(1)
Qualitative Research: I	432	(37)
What is Qualitative Research?	432	(1)
General Characteristics of Qualitative Research	433	(3)
Forms of Qualitative Research	436	(10)
Observation	436	(4)
Interviewing	440	(6)
Generalization in Qualitative Research	446	(1)
Examples of How Research Could Be Done in Schools: Identifying Aggression in Second-Grade Boys by Means of an Observational Study	447	(1)
An Example of a Qualitative Study: Dumping Ground or Effective Alternative? Dropout-Prevention Programs in Urban Schools	448	(17)
Try the Method Yourself: Observe a Classroom Discussion	465	(1)
Summary	466	(1)
Key Concepts Developed in This Chapter	467	(1)
What Should I Understand at This Point?	467	(1)
What's Next?	468	(1)
Qualitative Research: II	469	(1)
The Nature of Ethnographic Research	469	(2)
The Unique Value of Ethnographic Research	471	(1)
Field Notes	472	(3)
Sampling in Ethnographic Research	475	(1)
Advantages and Disadvantages of Ethnographic Research	475	(1)
Validity and Reliability in Qualitative Research	476	(2)
Ethics and Qualitative Research	478	(2)
Qualitative and Quantitative Research Reconsidered	480	(1)
Examples of How Research Could Be Done in Schools: Fending Out How Music Teachers Teach Their Subject by Means of an Ethnographic Study	481	(2)
All Have Value	483	(1)
Another Example of a Qualitative Study: A Portrait of Four Social Studies Teachers and Their Classes: With Special Attention Paid to Identification of Teaching Techniques and Behaviors That Contribute to Student Learning	483	(26)
Try the Method Yourself: Do Some Ethnographic Research	509	(1)
Summary	510	(1)
Key Concepts Developed in This Chapter	510	(1)
What Should I Understand at This Point?	510	(1)
What's Next?	511	(4)
APPENDIXES
Appendix A: General Glossary of Research Terminology	515	(10)
Appendix B: Specialized Glossary of Statistical Terminology	525	(4)
Appendix C: Calculation of Some Commonly Used Statistics	529	(6)
Appendix D: Table of Random Numbers	535	(2)
Appendix E: Table of Chi-Square Values	537