The Educational Service Agency American Education's Invisible Partner

by Stephens, Robert E.; Keane, William G.

• ISBN13: 9780761831556
• ISBN10: 076183155X
• Format: Paperback
• Copyright: 2005-06-23
• Publisher: UPA

Summary

Education service agencies (ESAs), the middle echelon in the P-12 education structure, serve local school districts and their children in 42 states. Since these agencies work directly with local school districts and their students, they are largely invisible to the general public and, incredibly, not a small number of legislators. Yet ESAs are responsible for the direct or indirect expenditure of billions of dollars and are perhaps the main vehicle for training in-service teachers, administrators, and other staff members throughout the country. In addition, they provide technical assistance for a wide range of management areas such as finance, food service, transportation, purchasing, and technology. This highly researched, well-referenced book, the first ever to document the work of service agencies in America, begins with four chapters that summarize the history and development of service agencies into current times and catalogue the different financing and governance structures under which they function. Three chapters are devoted to descriptions of programs and services offered for students, whether they have special interests or needs. Another chapter deals with ESAs as the lynch pin for partnerships with community agencies, businesses, and other levels of government. The book concludes with two chapters about the growing insistence on accountability for ESAs and a final chapter projects three scenarios about the possible future roles of ESAs in the American education system.

Author Biography

E. Robert Stephens is Director of the Institute for Regional and Rural Studies in Education, Edmond, Oklahoma William G. Keane is Associate Professor in the Department of Educational Leadership at Oakland University

Table of Contents

List of Figures	ix
List of Tables	xi
Acknowledgements	xiii
Introduction	xv
Chapter 1 The Evolution of the Educational Service Agency Concept 1930-1960	1	(22)
Introduction	1	(1)
Stages in the Evolution of the Service Agency Concept	2	(1)
Stage 1: The Early Formative Period	3	(9)
Origins of State Variations	5	(1)
Types of Local School Districts	5	(1)
The Emerging Role of State School Administration	6	(3)
The Emergence of Early Forms of Service Agencies	9	(3)
Stage 2: The Concept at a Crossroad	12	(8)
Major Factors Giving Rise to the Controversy	13	(1)
Proposals for Change	14	(6)
Summary	20	(1)
References	20	(3)
Chapter 2 Stage Three: The "Golden Age" in the Development	23	(28)
Early Structural Modifications	23	(1)
Precipitating Factors Causing Middle Level Reorganization	23	(3)
State Developments	26	(3)
An Early Typology	29	(1)
Stage 4: The Restructuring Period	30	(1)
Further Changes in the Calculus	31	(1)
Other Major Forces Promoting Restructuring Activities	32	(4)
Federal and State Influences on Service Agency Development	36	(4)
Formal Endorsement in Federal Legislation Directed at Local General Government	40	(1)
Support in Positions of Federal Executive Branch	41	(3)
Advocacy in State and National Professional Communities	44	(3)
Discussion	47	(1)
Summary	48	(1)
References	48	(3)
Chapter 3 Educational Service Agencies in Contemporary America	51	(34)
Introduction	51	(1)
Working Definitions of Present Day ESA	51	(2)
Service Agencies Featured in the Profile	53	(1)
Number and Type of Educational Service Agencies	54	(3)
A Conservative Count	54	(3)
Establishment, Alteration, and Dissolution Practices	57	(4)
Establishment Patterns	57	(1)
Criteria Used to Establish Geographic Boundaries	57	(1)
Membership Status of School Districts	58	(2)
Alteration and Dissolution Practices	60	(1)
Mission	61	(1)
Themes of Statutory Provisions	61	(1)
Individual Service Agency Mission Statements	62	(1)
Governance Features	62	(3)
Powers and Duties of Governing Board	64	(1)
Advisory Groups	65	(1)
Programming Patterns	65	(5)
Major Programming Patterns	66	(1)
Statutory Requirements	66	(3)
Joint Service Agreements	69	(1)
Role in State Regulatory System	70	(1)
Enhanced Role in State School Improvement Strategies	70	(1)
Staffing Practices	70	(4)
Chief Executive Officer	70	(3)
Staffing Levels	73	(1)
Other Patterns	74	(1)
Financial Features	74	(3)
Major Types of Funding Sources	74	(2)
Independent Taxing Authority	76	(1)
Total Expenditures	77	(4)
State Funding Formulas	77	(4)
Other Required Financial Practices	81	(1)
Acquisition of Facilities	81	(1)
References	82	(3)
Chapter 4 Structure and Organization of ESAs: A Commentary	85	(18)
Type and Number of State Networks	85	(3)
Establishment, Alteration, and Dissolution of ESAs	88	(1)
Mission Statements	89	(1)
What Is the Network to Do?	89	(1)
Governance Practices	89	(1)
Selection of Board Members	89	(1)
Powers and Duties of Governing Boards	89	(1)
Programming Features	90	(2)
Staffing Practices	92	(2)
Financial Practices	94	(1)
General Observations	95	(6)
References	101	(2)
Chapter 5 The Impact of ESAs on Teaching and Learning	103	(14)
The Role of ESAs in School Improvement	104	(1)
Time	104	(1)
Money	105	(1)
Financing School Improvement Efforts at ESAs	105	(1)
New Directions in ESA Curriculum and Instruction Services	106	(9)
Cost	106	(1)
Substitutes	106	(1)
Technology	106	(1)
Higher Standards for All Students	107	(1)
Site-based Training and Curriculum Development	107	(2)
Distance Learning	109	(1)
Virtual Learning	109	(2)
Assisting Low-Performing School Districts	111	(1)
Program Examples	112	(3)
Summary	115	(1)
References	115	(2)
Chapter 6 Services to Students with Special Needs	117	(16)
Special Education	118	(4)
The Federal Government and Education of the Handicapped	118	(2)
Preschool Special Education	120	(1)
Examples of Other Special Education Programs	121	(1)
Prevention	121	(1)
Vocational/Technical Education	122	(3)
Alternative Education	125	(3)
Court-Involved Students	127	(1)
Agency-Involved Students	127	(1)
Migrant Children	128	(1)
Charter Schools	128	(1)
Gifted and Talented Education	128	(2)
Magnet Schools	130	(1)
Other Pupil Personnel Services	130	(1)
Summary	130	(1)
References	131	(2)
Chapter 7 Improving School and School District Infrastructure	133	(28)
Introduction	133	(1)
Organization of Chapter	134	(1)
Assistance in Meeting Special Physical Facility Needs	134	(2)
Assistance in Addressing Organizational and Management Capacity
Issues	136	(10)
Examples of Support Programs	139	(1)
Strengthening Management Support Systems	139	(1)
Leveraging Financial Resources	140	(4)
Activities of Statewide Networks	144	(2)
Broad Programming Patterns	146	(4)
Differences in Involvement in Program Planning and Implementation	146	(2)
Variations in the Recipients of Programs and Services	148	(1)
Variations in the Financing of Programs	149	(1)
Financing Management Support Services	150	(1)
Discussion	150	(8)
Programming Changes 1979-1999	151	(1)
Two Primary Foci	151	(1)
Programming Consistent with Mission	152	(2)
Critical Role of the State	154	(3)
Potential Multiple Benefits	157	(1)
Summary	158	(1)
References	158	(3)
Chapter 8 Strengthening Schools Through ESA Partnerships	161	(16)
Historical Roots of Partnerships	161	(4)
Education's Partnerships with Business	161	(3)
Education's Partnerships with Unions	164	(1)
Education's Partnerships with Community Agencies	164	(1)
Conceptual Bases for Partnerships	165	(1)
Requirements of Successful Collaborations	166	(2)
Basic Characteristics	166	(1)
Personal Characteristics of Collaborative Leaders	167	(1)
The Weaknesses of Collaboration	167	(1)
Major Conclusions Regarding Successful Collaborations	168	(1)
Sustaining Educational Partnerships	168	(1)
The Governance of Partnerships	168	(1)
The Durability of Partnerships	169	(1)
ESAs as the Locus of Partnerships	169	(1)
The Convenience of the ESA as Partner	169	(1)
Two Types of Educational Partnerships	170	(5)
Intra-Education Partnerships	170	(4)
Inter-Agency Partnerships	174	(1)
Summary	175	(1)
References	175	(2)
Chapter 9 Holding Service Agencies Accountable: Concepts and Practices	177	(24)
Introduction	177	(1)
Contemporary Notions of Accountability	177	(4)
Rationale for the New Focus	178	(2)
Potential Benefits of Performance Measurement	180	(1)
State Accountability Practices	181	(3)
Traditional Features	181	(3)
The New Generation of State Accountability Practices	184	(1)
Discussion	185	(13)
Organization of the Discussion	187	(1)
State Adoptions of an Accreditation System: A Growing Phenomenon	188	(3)
State Adoptions of a Policy-Relevant Annual Report Card	191	(4)
The Need for Benchmarking Activities	195	(1)
The Need for Costing-Out Studies	196	(1)
The Need for Voluntary Efforts at Accountability	196	(1)
The Need for Reciprocal Accountability	197	(1)
Summary	198	(1)
References	198	(3)
Chapter 10 Accountability and Accreditation for ESAs: Current Practices	201	(30)
State Accreditation Systems	201	(16)
Georgia RESAs	201	(1)
Iowa AEAs	202	(5)
Nebraska ESUs	207	(3)
Ohio ESCs	210	(1)
Oregon ESDs	211	(2)
Texas RESCs	213	(3)
West Virginia RESAs	216	(1)
State-Sponsored Annual Report Cards	217	(4)
New York BOCES	218	(1)
Oregon ESDs	219	(1)
Texas RESCs	219	(2)
Voluntary Accountability Activities of Service Centers	221	(7)
Voluntary State Network Efforts	221	(4)
Individual Agency Voluntary Accountability Practices	225	(3)
Summary	228	(1)
References	228	(3)
Chapter 11 The Future of Educational Service Agencies	231	(18)
Forces Shaping the Future	232	(4)
Pressures on State Education Agencies	232	(1)
School Choice	233	(1)
Focus on Interorganizational Cooperation	234	(1)
Urban and Rural School Problems	234	(1)
The Knowledge Explosion	235	(1)
Technology	235	(1)
Site-based Delivery	236	(1)
Three Scenarios for the Future	236	(4)
Scenario #1-A Worst Case Scenario	237	(1)
Scenario #2-A Best Case Scenario	238	(1)
Scenario #3-Most Probable Scenario	239	(1)
Discussion	240	(6)
Shedding Invisibility	240	(2)
Data for Policy Decision-Making	242	(1)
More Cost Analysis Studies Needed	242	(4)
Surviving Competition and Thriving	246	(1)
Summary	247	(1)
References	247	(2)
Index	249