The Effects of Air Pollution on the Built Environment

by Brimblecombe, Peter

• ISBN13: 9781860942914
• ISBN10: 1860942911
• Format: Hardcover
• Copyright: 2003-04-01
• Publisher: Imperial College Pr

Summary

Air pollution damages materials, but it has changed dramatically in the past century, with a reduction in the concentration of corrosive primary pollutants in urban atmospheres. At the same time, architectural styles and types of materials have changed, as we have moved to more organically rich, photochemically active atmospheres.Contemporary air pollutants have the potential to degrade organic coatings and polymers, which are of great importance to modern structures, while increasing amounts of fine diesel soot spoil the simple lines and smooth areas characteristic of many modern buildings.This book examines a range of materials, discussing the ways in which they are likely to be damaged by air pollutants. It should be of interest to scientists and policymakers dealing with the effects of urban air pollution.

Table of Contents

Contributors	xiii
Preface	xvii
Long Term Damage to the Built Environment	1	(30)
P. Brimblecombe
D. Camuffo
Introduction	1	(1)
Changes in Climate	2	(11)
History of Climate	5	(3)
Freeze-Thaw Cycles	8	(3)
Storms and Precipitation	11	(2)
Biological Factors	13	(1)
Changes in Air Pollution	13	(14)
History of Air Pollution	14	(1)
Early Acid Rain and Dry Fogs	15	(3)
Early Descriptions of Damage	18	(1)
Industrial Development and Pollution	19	(1)
Victorian Approaches to Damage	20	(1)
Architectural Responses	21	(1)
The Twentieth Century	22	(1)
Economic Analysis	22	(3)
Archeometric Sources of Information	25	(2)
Recent Changes in Modern Pollutants and Materials	27	(4)
Background Controls on Urban Stone Decay: Lessons from Natural Rock Weathering	31	(32)
B.J. Smith
Introduction	31	(1)
The Origins of Misconceptions	32	(3)
Decisions Governing Choice of Materials	33	(1)
Research Bias and Accessibility	33	(2)
Process Interactions	35	(3)
Climatic Controls on Stone Decay	38	(8)
Temperature Controls	40	(3)
Moisture Controls	43	(3)
The Direct Consequences of Placing Stone Within a Building	46	(2)
Rates and Patterns of Decay	48	(6)
Temporal Variability	48	(4)
Spatial Variability	52	(2)
Inheritance Effects	54	(2)
Concluding Observations and Implications for Stone Conservation	56	(7)
Mechanisms of Air Pollution Damage to Stone	63	(44)
C. Sabbioni
Introduction	63	(2)
Damage on Stone Buildings and Monuments	65	(11)
Marble and Limestone	65	(8)
Sandstone	73	(3)
Granite	76	(1)
Chamber Tests	76	(12)
Field Exposure Tests	88	(19)
Mechanisms of Air Pollution Damage to Brick, Concrete and Mortar	107	(26)
T. Yates
Introduction	107	(1)
Air Pollutants	108	(2)
Concrete and Cement	110	(8)
Introduction	110	(1)
Cement And Concrete Chemistry	110	(2)
The Effect of Carbon Dioxide	112	(3)
The Effects of Other Pollutants	115	(3)
Conclusions	118	(1)
Brickwork and Mortar	118	(15)
Introduction	118	(1)
Brick Manufacture and Composition	119	(3)
Pollutant Attack on Brick	122	(2)
Mortar and Pollutant Attack	124	(2)
Interactions Between Brick and Mortar	126	(1)
Conclusions	127	(6)
Salts and Crusts	133	(50)
M. Steiger
Introduction	133	(1)
Sources of Salts in Building Materials	134	(10)
Chemical Weathering	134	(1)
Acid Deposition	135	(8)
Other Sources of Salts	143	(1)
Mobility and Hygroscopicity of Salts	144	(9)
Mechanism of Salt Damage	153	(10)
Crystallization Pressure	154	(4)
Hydration Pressure	158	(5)
Atmospheric Pollution and Salt Enrichment	163	(12)
Conclusions	175	(8)
Organic Pollutants in the Built Environment and Their Effect on the Microorganisms	183	(44)
C. Saiz-Jimenez
Introduction	183	(1)
Sources of Organic Pollutants in Urban Environments	184	(5)
Hydrocarbons	186	(1)
Acids and Ketones	186	(1)
Triterpenoid Hydrocarbons	187	(1)
Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons	187	(1)
Carbonaceous Matter	188	(1)
Identification of Organic Pollutants in Black Crusts	189	(17)
Analytical Methodologies	189	(2)
Sites Investigated	191	(1)
Solvent Extraction of Black Crusts	192	(6)
Analytical Pyrolysis of Black Crusts	198	(3)
Simultaneous Pyrolysis/Methylation	201	(5)
Microbiology of Black Crusts	206	(5)
Biodegradation of Black Crusts	211	(8)
Aliphatic Hydrocarbon Biodegradation	211	(2)
Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbon Biodegradation	213	(4)
Gypsum Crust Biodegradation	217	(2)
Conclusions	219	(8)
Air Pollution Damage to Metals	227	(22)
J. Tidblad
V. Kucera
Introduction	227	(1)
Effects of the Environment	228	(9)
The Multi--Pollutant Situation	228	(1)
Climate	229	(1)
Gaseous Pollutants	230	(4)
Particles	234	(1)
Wet Deposition	235	(2)
Effects on Metallic Materials	237	(5)
Effects on Metals in General	237	(1)
Ferrous Metals	238	(1)
Zinc and Galvanised Steel	239	(1)
Copper and Bronze	240	(1)
Aluminium	241	(1)
Life Time Assessment and Cost Calculations	242	(2)
Corrosion Trends	244	(5)
The Effect of Air Pollution on Glass	249	(18)
J. Leissner
Introduction	249	(1)
The Corrosion Process	250	(9)
Chemical Composition and Structure of Glass	250	(2)
Principle Corrosion Reactions	252	(2)
Different Stages of Surface Corrosion	254	(3)
Corrosion Enhancing Factors and Effects	257	(2)
Main Analytical Tools to Examine Corrosion Effects on Glass	259	(1)
SEM/EDX	259	(1)
InfraRed and Raman Spectroscopy	259	(1)
Evaluation of Environmental Impact	260	(3)
Conclusions	263	(4)
The Effects of Ozone on Materials --- Experimental Evaluation of the Susceptibility of Polymeric Materials to Ozone	267	(22)
D.S. Lee
P.M. Lewis
J.N. Cape
I.D. Leith
S.E. Espenhahn
Introduction	267	(1)
Experimental Design	268	(3)
Experimental Philosophy and Strategy	268	(1)
The High Ozone Exposure Chambers	269	(1)
The Open-Top Chambers	269	(2)
Exposure of Rubber and Polymeric Materials to Ozone	271	(14)
Introduction	271	(2)
Test Materials	273	(1)
Test Piece Evaluation	274	(2)
Results	276	(9)
Conclusions on the Exposure of Rubber and Polymeric Materials to Ozone	285	(4)
The Soiling of Buildings by Air Pollution	289	(46)
J. Watt
R. Hamilton
Introduction	289	(2)
Soiling and Material Damage	291	(2)
The Nature of Atmospheric Particles	293	(11)
Primary Particulate Matter	294	(1)
Secondary Particulate Matter	295	(1)
Particle Mass Concentrations	296	(2)
Chemical Composition of Particles	298	(1)
Carbonaceous Compounds	298	(4)
Particle Deposition	302	(1)
Deposition Velocities	303	(1)
Soiling Models	304	(10)
Field Studies	305	(7)
A Theoretical Framework	312	(2)
Deposition Velocity	314	(5)
Indoor Soiling	319	(1)
Economics of Soiling	320	(5)
Costs to Cultural Heritage Caused by Soiling	325	(4)
Conclusions	329	(6)
Changes in Soiling Patterns Over Time on the Cathedral of Learning	335	(16)
W. Tang
C.I. Davidson
S. Finger
V. Etyemezian
M.F. Striegel
S.I. Sherwood
Introduction	335	(1)
Changes of Soiling Patterns	336	(11)
Background	336	(2)
Changes in Soiling Patterns Over Time Based on Archival Photographs	338	(4)
Analysis of Soiling on Architectural Features	342	(3)
Comparison of Soiling Patterns with Modeling of Rain Impingement	345	(2)
Conclusions	347	(4)
Exposure of Buildings to Pollutants in Urban Areas: A Review of the Contributions from Different Sources	351	(42)
D.J. Hall
A.M. Spanton
V. Kukadia
S. Walker
Introduction	351	(2)
Dispersion Over Different Scales in Urban Areas	353	(20)
The Definition of Scales and Spatial Variability	353	(2)
Dispersion at Short (Microscale) Ranges	355	(8)
Dispersion at Neighbourhood Scales (100--2000 m)	363	(5)
Dispersion at Urban Scales (5--50 km)	368	(2)
Dispersion at Regional and Continental Scales (100 km +)	370	(1)
The Overall Pollutant Concentration Level Due to the Contribution of Sources at Varying Scales and ``Background'' Concentrations	371	(2)
Some Examples of Urban Pollutant Data	373	(14)
Pollution Monitoring Sites in the West Midlands Area	373	(8)
Correlations of Pollutant Levels Between the Sites	381	(6)
Discussion	387	(1)
Conclusions	388	(1)
Summary	389	(4)
The Whole Building and Patterns of Degradation	393	(30)
R. Inkpen
Introduction	393	(2)
Small-Scale Studies of Stone Degradation	395	(3)
Classification of Building Degradation	398	(8)
The Building as the Physical Representation of Socio-Economic and Cultural Factors	406	(10)
Conclusion	416	(7)
Index	423