Energy from the Ocean

by Congressional Research Service

• ISBN13: 9781410201300
• ISBN10: 1410201309
• Format: Paperback
• Copyright: 2002-08-01
• Publisher: Lightning Source Inc

Table of Contents

Letter of transmittal	iii
Letter of submittal	v
Letter requesting study	vii
Conclusions	3	(2)
Introduction	5	(4)
Summary	9	(16)
RENEWABLE SOURCES OF ENERGY FROM THE OCEAN
Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC)	25	(56)
Resource potential	25	(1)
Regions of potential OTEC utilization	26	(5)
History of the technology and basic technological concepts	31	(5)
Recent design concepts	36	(9)
Open-cycle plants	36	(3)
Closed-cycle plants	39	(6)
Research and development	45	(15)
System components and related problems in the marine environment	45	(1)
Heat exchangers	45	(3)
Turbines	48	(1)
Instrumentation and controls	49	(1)
Pumps for various OTEC applications	49	(1)
Choice of materials	50	(1)
Materials corrosion problems and biofouling of components and subsystems (avoidance and corrective measures)	50	(2)
Anchoring, mooring, and dynamic positioning	52	(1)
Platform construction system, deployment, and methodology for power plant maintenance and overhaul	53	(1)
Legal, political, and institutional considerations	54	(1)
International jurisdictional issues	54	(1)
Spatial and emerging use conflicts	54	(1)
Regulatory and liability aspects	54	(1)
Domestic and international environmental aspects	55	(1)
Financing	55	(1)
Resource, ecological, and environmental research	56	(1)
Resource assessments	56	(1)
Ecological and environmental impacts	56	(1)
Energy conversion and delivery	57	(1)
Potential byproducts of large floating OTEC plants	58	(1)
Mariculture	58	(1)
Alumina reduction to aluminum	58	(1)
Hydrogen	59	(1)
Use of ammonia as a hydrogen carrier	59	(1)
Other products and ocean energy industrial complexes	59	(1)
Costs and development	60	(16)
Costs	61	(2)
Additional considerations related to costs	63	(1)
Legal constraints	64	(1)
Policy constraints	64	(1)
Technical constraints	65	(1)
Financial constraints	65	(1)
Legal incentives	66	(1)
Policy incentives	66	(1)
Technical incentives	66	(1)
Financial incentives	66	(1)
Development of timetables for ocean thermal powerplants	66	(5)
Near-term (--1985)	71	(1)
Mid-term (--2000)	71	(1)
Long-term (beyond 2000)	71	(5)
Recapitulation and conclusions	76	(5)
Energy from ocean waves	81	(68)
Introduction	81	(9)
Wave-energy development programs	83	(2)
Wave characteristics	85	(4)
Estimation of wave energy	89	(1)
Resource potential for energy from waves	90	(13)
World estimates	90	(4)
North American estimates	94	(4)
United Kingdom estimates	98	(3)
Estimates for other areas	101	(1)
Limitations on the wave energy resource	102	(1)
Technology of wave-energy extraction	103	(21)
Schemes operated by mass transport from breaking waves	106	(3)
The wave pump	109	(2)
Pneumatic conversion devices	111	(7)
Devices operated by various motions of the waves	118	(3)
Underwater pressure field devices	121	(3)
Environmental implications of wave energy extraction	124	(3)
Economic considerations	127	(5)
Research problems associated with energy conversion from ocean waves	132	(2)
Summary	134	(15)
Appendix A	137	(6)
Appendix B	143	(6)
Energy from ocean currents	149	(26)
Introduction and resource potential	149	(5)
Technology of energy conversion from ocean currents	154	(10)
Turbines	154	(5)
The Savonius Rotor	159	(1)
Other proposed schemes for extracting energy from ocean currents	160	(2)
Specific schemes proposed for the Florida current	162	(1)
Support for development of ocean current energy conversion technology	163	(1)
Environmental considerations	164	(1)
Economic considerations	165	(2)
Research and development needs	167	(5)
Turbine research and development	169	(2)
Environmental research	171	(1)
Other engineering problems needing research	171	(1)
Other problem areas for research	172	(1)
Summary	172	(3)
Energy from ocean tides	175	(48)
Resource potential	175	(8)
Physical parameters	175	(2)
Potential tidal power sites	177	(5)
Existing tidal powerplants	182	(1)
Tidal currents	183	(1)
Technology	183	(20)
Single basin, one-direction scheme	195	(1)
Single basin, two-direction scheme	195	(1)
Single basin, two-direction pumped storage scheme	195	(1)
Double basin scheme	196	(1)
Double basin with pumping scheme	196	(1)
Tide augmented pumped storage scheme	196	(1)
Tide powered compressed air storage scheme	196	(1)
Tide powered hydrostatic pump, Pelton wheel scheme	197	(1)
Tidal currents	197	(1)
Turbogenerators	197	(5)
Sluice gate design	202	(1)
Control systems	203	(1)
Construction techniques	203	(1)
Environmental considerations	203	(2)
Economic considerations	205	(7)
Problems for research	212	(3)
Schemes of development	212	(1)
Barrages	213	(1)
Tidal range compensation	213	(1)
Gates and gate structures	214	(1)
Generating units and power house	214	(1)
Materials corrosion and fouling	214	(1)
Optimization of solutions	215	(1)
Federal activities	215	(8)
The Passamaquoddy project: A historical review	215	(3)
Current Federal activities	218	(5)
Energy from oceanic wind	223	(10)
Introduction	223	(1)
Background	223	(2)
Early history	223	(1)
The present U.S. WECS program	224	(1)
Offshore WECS in the Federal program	225	(1)
Power characteristics of the wind	225	(1)
Availability of marine wind data	226	(1)
Efficiency of WECS	226	(1)
Available wind power at offshore sites	227	(3)
Problem areas in offshore WECS application	230	(1)
Summary	231	(2)
Salinity gradient conversion processes	233	(12)
Introduction	233	(1)
Osmosis---Basic principle of operation	233	(3)
Membranes	236	(1)
Resource potential	236	(2)
Technology of salinity gradient energy systems	238	(5)
Estuarine salinity gradient energy converter	238	(1)
Pressure-retarded osmosis	239	(1)
Osmotic pump	240	(2)
Electric power from the dialytic battery	242	(1)
Federally-supported research on salinity gradient conversion technology	243	(1)
Problems for research	243	(1)
Summary	244	(1)
Oceanic bioconversion	245	(14)
Resource potential	245	(2)
Technology	247	(6)
Plantation unit	247	(1)
Seeding	248	(1)
Growth	248	(2)
Harvesting	250	(1)
Processing for SNG	250	(1)
Processing for industrial products	251	(1)
Processing for food products	252	(1)
Environmental considerations	253	(1)
Economic considerations	253	(1)
Problems for research	254	(2)
Federal activities	256	(3)
NONRENEWABLE SOURCES OF ENERGY FROM THE OCEAN
Deep ocean oil and gas	259	(50)
Resource potential	262	(7)
Technology	269	(24)
Techniques to locate hydrocarbons in offshore areas	269	(5)
Exploratory drilling and drilling rigs	274	(6)
Production and development technology	280	(11)
Transportation	291	(2)
Environmental considerations	293	(6)
Marine oil pollution in perspective	294	(2)
Fate of petroleum in the marine environment	296	(2)
Spill prevention and cleanup technology	298	(1)
Federal management of offshore leases	299	(3)
Resource conservation	302	(1)
Summary	303	(1)
Recent Federal OCS activities	304	(5)
Offshore geothermal energy	309	(18)
Introduction	309	(1)
Resource potential	310	(6)
North Sea geothermal resources	312	(1)
Gulf coast geopressured geothermal resources	313	(3)
Technology	316	(6)
Exploration and drilling technology	316	(1)
Development and production technology	317	(5)
Environmental considerations	322	(2)
Summary	324	(3)
Offshore hard mineral resources	327	(8)
Historical perspective	327	(1)
Resource potential	327	(2)
Technology	329	(1)
Environmental considerations	330	(1)
Economic considerations	331	(2)
Problems for research	333	(2)
Selected bibliography	335	(7)
Ocean thermal energy conversion	335	(1)
Energy from ocean waves	336	(2)
Energy from ocean currents	338	(1)
Energy from ocean tides	339	(1)
Energy from oceanic wind	339	(1)
Salinity gradient energy conversion processes	340	(1)
Oceanic bioconversion	340	(1)
Deep ocean oil and gas	340	(1)
Offshore geothermal energy	341	(1)
Offshore hard minerals resource	342