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John W. Betz, PhD, is a Fellow of The MITRE Corporation and an internationally recognized expert in satellite-based navigation and timing. He is an innovator whose technical contributions and personal involvement have shaped the design of modernized GPS as well as other satnav systems. He is a sought-after speaker and instructor with multiple award-winning publications, and is a Fellow of the IEEE and the Institute of Navigation. His extensive knowledge, combined with his ability to provide a clearly structured and comprehensive depiction of all aspects of satnav engineering, promise to make this book the standard text and reference for this field.
Preface xv
Acknowledgments xvii
Useful Constants xix
List of Acronyms and Abbreviations xxi
About the Author xxvii
1 Introduction 1
1.1 Satnav Revolution 2
1.2 Basic Principles of Satnav 5
1.3 Satnav Attributes 12
1.4 Book Structure and How to Use This Book 12
1.5 More to Explore 14
Reference 15
Part I System and Signal Engineering 17
2 Satellite Orbits and Constellations 19
2.1 Kepler’s Laws 20
2.2 Orbital Deviations from Ideal 25
2.3 Constellations 26
2.4 Useful Geometry Calculations 30
2.5 Summary 35
Review Questions 35
References 36
3 Satnav Signals 37
3.1 Signals, Signal Processing, and Spreading Modulations 38
3.2 Effects of Doppler and of Lonospheric Propagation 59
3.3 Satnav Signal Characteristics 65
3.4 Satnav Signal Structure 86
3.5 Summary 92
Review Questions 92
References 99
4 Link Budgets 102
4.1 Free-Space Path Loss 103
4.2 Calculating Maximum and Minimum Specified Received Power in Signal Specifications 107
4.3 Terrestrial Link Budgets 112
4.4 Building Penetration and Foliage Losses 116
4.5 Summary 119
Review Questions 119
References 120
5 Correlator Output SNR, Effective C/N0, and I/S 122
5.1 Channel Model and Ideal Receiver Processing 122
5.2 Correlator Output SNR with No Interference 125
5.3 Correlator Output SNR with Interference: Spectral Separation Coefficients and Processing Gain 127
5.4 Effective C/N0 129
5.5 Interference-to-Signal Power Ratios and Effective C/N0 130
5.6 A Deeper Look at Spectral Separation Coefficients 130
5.7 Multiple Access Interference and Aggregate Gain of a Constellation 133
5.8 Summary 135
Review Questions 136
References 138
6 Error Sources and Error Characterization 139
6.1 Sources of Error in Satnav Positioning and Timing Calculation 140
6.2 Dilution of Precision and Error Measures 146
6.3 Positioning Errors for Standalone and Differential Satnav Receivers 150
6.4 Other Error Sources 152
6.5 Summary 153
Review Questions 154
References 155
Part II Satnav System Descriptions 157
7 Navstar Global Positioning System 163
7.1 GPS History and Plans 165
7.2 GPS Description 167
7.3 GPS Signals 168
7.4 Summary 196
Review Questions 197
References 198
8 Satellite-Based Augmentation Systems 201
8.1 SBAS History and Plans 202
8.2 SBAS Description 204
8.3 SBAS Signals 205
8.4 Summary 209
Review Questions 210
References 211
9 GLONASS 212
9.1 GLONASS History and Plans 213
9.2 GLONASS Description 214
9.3 GLONASS Signals 215
9.4 Summary 222
Review Questions 224
References 224
10 Galileo 226
10.1 Galileo History and Plans 227
10.2 Galileo Description 228
10.3 Galileo Signals 230
10.4 Summary 248
Review Questions 249
References 250
11 Beidou System 252
11.1 BDS History and Plans 253
11.2 BDS Description 254
11.3 BDS Signals 257
11.4 Summary 262
Review Questions 264
References 264
12 Quasi-Zenith Satellite System 266
12.1 QZSS History and Plans 267
12.2 QZSS Description 268
12.3 QZSS Signals 270
12.4 Summary 280
References 281
13 Indian Regional Satellite System 282
13.1 IRNSS History and Plans 283
13.2 IRNSS Description 283
13.3 IRNSS Signals 284
13.4 Summary 289
References 289
Part III Receiver Processing 291
14 Receiver Front End 297
14.1 Front-End Components 298
14.2 Front-End Noise Figure 321
14.3 Front-End Architectures and Frequency Plans 323
14.4 Summary 328
Review Questions 329
References 331
15 Analog-To-Digital Conversion 333
15.1 Introduction to Analog-to-Digital Conversion and Automatic Gain Control 334
15.2 Linear Analog-to-Digital Conversion 338
15.3 Precorrelator Analog-to-Digital Conversion—The Digitizing Correlator 340
15.4 Summary 362
Review Questions 362
References 363
16 Acquisition 364
16.1 Initial Conditions for Acquisition 367
16.2 Initial Synchronization Basics 370
16.3 Initial Synchronization Computation 383
16.4 Initial Synchronization Performance 392
16.5 Other Aspects of Acquisition 396
16.6 Summary 401
Review Questions 403
References 404
17 Discrete-Update Tracking Loops 406
17.1 Discrete-Update Tracking Loop Formulation 408
17.2 Discrete-Update Tracking Loop Design 412
17.3 Tracking Loop Characterization 416
17.4 Summary 426
References 427
18 Carrier Tracking and Data Demodulation 428
18.1 Signal Processing for Carrier Tracking 429
18.2 Frequency-Locked Loops 442
18.3 Costas Loops 447
18.4 Phase-Locked Loops 450
18.5 Data Message Demodulation 453
18.6 Summary 462
Review Questions 463
References 465
19 Code Tracking 467
19.1 Signal Processing for Code Tracking 468
19.2 Discriminators for Code Tracking 474
19.3 Carrier-Aided Code Tracking 480
19.4 Code Tracking Performance in White Noise 481
19.5 Code Tracking Performance in White Noise and Interference 489
19.6 Ambiguous Code Tracking 492
19.7 Summary 498
Appendix 19.A RMS Bandwidth 499
Review Questions 502
References 502
20 Position, Velocity, and Time Calculation 504
20.1 Forming Measurements 505
20.2 Reducing Pseudorange Errors 508
20.3 Standard Point Positioning 515
20.4 Blending Solutions from Multiple Satnav Systems 520
20.5 Velocity Calculation 522
20.6 Working with Disadvantaged Receivers 524
20.7 Precise Point Positioning 527
20.8 Integrity Monitoring: Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring and Fault Detection and Exclusion 529
20.9 Summary 530
Review Questions 531
References 534
Part IV Specialized Topics 537
21 Interference 539
21.1 Interference Characteristics 540
21.2 Effects of Interference on Receiver Operation 541
21.3 Dealing with Interference 542
21.4 Summary 549
References 550
22 Multipath 551
22.1 Multipath Characteristics 552
22.2 Multipath Effects 556
22.3 Multipath Mitigation 560
22.4 Summary 567
References 568
23 Augmentations Using Differential Satnav 570
23.1 Overview of Differential Satnav 571
23.2 Code-Based Differential Systems 574
23.3 Carrier-Based Differential Systems 576
23.4 Summary 586
References 586
24 Assisted Satnav 588
24.1 Reducing IFU and ITU 590
24.2 Provision of Clock Corrections, Ephemeris, and Data Message Bits 591
24.3 Block Processing 592
24.4 Computing Pseudoranges and Position 592
24.5 Summary 593
Reference 594
25 Integrated Receiver Processing 595
25.1 Kalman Filter Overview 596
25.2 Loosely and Tightly Coupled Sensor-Integrated Satnav Processing 599
25.3 Standalone Vector Tracking 603
25.4 Ultratightly Coupled Sensor-Integrated Satnav Processing 605
25.5 Summary 606
References 607
A Theoretical Foundations 609
A.1 Some Useful Functions and Their Properties 610
A.2 Fourier Transforms 611
A.3 Signal Theory and Linear Systems Theory 611
A.4 Stochastic Processes 613
A.5 Some Results for Keyed Waveforms 615
A.6 Bandwidth Measures 619
A.7 Matrices and Matrix Algebra 621
A.8 Taylor Series and Linearization 623
A.9 Coordinate System Overview 624
References 625
Index 627
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