Environmental Hydrology, Second Edition

by Ward; Andy D.

• ISBN13: 9781566706162
• ISBN10: 1566706165
• Edition: 2nd
• Format: Hardcover
• Copyright: 2003-12-18
• Publisher: CRC Press

Summary

This edition builds upon the foundation of the bestselling first edition by providing a qualitative understanding of hydrolic parameters and processes.

Table of Contents

The Hydrologic Cycle, Water Resources, and Society	1	(28)
Introduction	1	(3)
The Hydrologic Cycle	4	(2)
Precipitation	5	(1)
Evaporation	5	(1)
Transpiration	5	(1)
Evapotranspiration	5	(1)
Infiltration	5	(1)
Percolation and Groundwater Recharge	6	(1)
Runoff and Overland Flow	6	(1)
Interflow	6	(1)
Groundwater Flow	6	(1)
Water Supply	6	(4)
The Importance of Hydrology to Society	10	(1)
Data Analysis and Statistics	11	(12)
Plotting Data	12	(1)
Descriptive Statistics	13	(2)
Experimental Error	15	(1)
Standard Error	15	(1)
Confidence Intervals	16	(1)
Probabilities and Distributions	16	(1)
Normal Distribution	17	(1)
t Distribution	17	(1)
Properties of Statistical Procedures	17	(1)
Inferential Statistics and Hypothesis Testing	18	(1)
Probability Values	18	(1)
Statistical Errors	18	(1)
Linear Regression	18	(3)
The Use and Misuse of Regression Equations	21	(1)
Data Transformations	22	(1)
Multiple Regression Analysis	22	(1)
Modeling the Hydrologic Cycle	23	(6)
Types of Models	24	(1)
Advantages and Disadvantages	24	(1)
Typical Model Architecture	25	(1)
Problems	26	(3)
Precipitation	29	(26)
Introduction	29	(3)
Precipitation Data	32	(1)
Causes of Precipitation	32	(1)
Frontal Precipitation	33	(1)
Convection	33	(1)
Orographic	33	(1)
Precipitation Events	33	(3)
Geographical and Seasonal Variations	33	(1)
Historic Time Trends	34	(2)
Storm Area Patterns	36	(1)
Measurement of Precipitation	36	(5)
Measurement of Snowfall	39	(1)
Rain Gages	39	(2)
Storm Time Trends	41	(2)
Time Sequence Patterns	42	(1)
Average Precipitation over an Area	43	(2)
Rainfall Distributions for Short Time Periods	44	(1)
Rainfall Frequency Distributions	45	(5)
St. Louis Frequency Relationship Transferred to the Contiguous U.S.	47	(1)
Regional Frequency-Magnitude Relationships: Seattle, Santa Fe, Chicago, and New Orleans	48	(2)
Probability of an Event Occurring	50	(1)
Seasonality of Storm Probability	50	(1)
Probable Maximum Precipitation	50	(1)
Rainfall Erosivity	50	(5)
Problems	51	(4)
Infiltration and Soil Water Processes	55	(28)
Introduction	55	(1)
Soil Water Relationships	55	(3)
Infiltration and Soil Water Retention	58	(4)
Factors Affecting Water Movement into and through Soils	62	(8)
Soil Properties	65	(1)
Soil Condition	66	(4)
Soil Water Balance	70	(1)
Estimating Infiltration Rates	71	(2)
Horton Equation	71	(1)
Green-Ampt Equation	71	(1)
Physically Based Methods	72	(1)
A Perspective on Infiltration Methods	73	(1)
Measurement of Soil Properties	73	(10)
Particle Size Analysis	73	(1)
Particle Density	74	(1)
Bulk Density	74	(1)
Soil Hydraulic Properties	75	(1)
Soil Water Content	75	(2)
Soil Suction and Soil Water Release/Retention Characteristics	77	(1)
Infiltration	78	(1)
Unsaturated Hydraulic Conductivity	79	(1)
Saturated Hydraulic Conductivity	79	(1)
Problems	80	(3)
Evapotranspiration	83	(36)
Introduction	83	(1)
Evaporation Process	83	(3)
Fick's First Law of Diffusion	84	(1)
Potential Evapotranspiration vs. Actual Evapotranspiration	84	(1)
Evaporation from Open Water	85	(1)
Evaporation from Bare Soil	85	(1)
Evapotranspiration from Soil and Plants	86	(5)
Interception	86	(1)
Transpiration	86	(1)
Factors that Affect Transpiration Rates	87	(3)
Transpiration Ratio and Consumptive Use	90	(1)
Potential Evapotranspiration and Actual Evapotranspiration Concepts and Practices in Agriculture	90	(1)
Reference Crop Evapotranspiration	91	(1)
Measuring Evaporation or Evapotranspiration	91	(4)
Evaporation Pan	92	(1)
Etp Gages	93	(1)
Soil Water Depletion	93	(1)
Water Balance	94	(1)
Lysimeters	94	(1)
Energy Balance and Mass Transfer	94	(1)
Weather Data Sources and Preparation	95	(5)
Saturation Vapor Pressure	95	(1)
Actual Vapor Pressure	96	(1)
Vapor Pressure Deficit	96	(2)
Mean Temperature	98	(1)
Solar Radiation	98	(1)
Extrapolating Wind Speed	99	(1)
Estimating Evaporation and Evapotranspiration	100	(9)
Evaporation from Open Water	100	(1)
Estimating Evapotranspiration	101	(2)
SCS Blaney-Criddle Method	103	(3)
Jensen-Haise Alfalfa-Reference Radiation Method	106	(1)
Thornthwaite Method	107	(1)
Penman's Method	108	(1)
Penman-Monteith Combination Method	109	(1)
Converting Potential or Reference Crop Evapotranspiration Using Crop Coefficients	109	(10)
Evapotranspiration and Soil Water Budgets in Space and Time	111	(3)
Evapotranspiration Management	114	(3)
Problems	117	(2)
Runoff and Subsurface Drainage	119	(42)
Introduction	119	(2)
Factors Affecting Runoff Processes	121	(4)
The Horton Overland Flow Model	122	(1)
The Variable Source Area Concept or Hewlett Model	122	(1)
Precipitation	123	(2)
Watershed Factors that Affect Runoff	125	(4)
Size	125	(1)
Topography	125	(1)
Shape	126	(1)
Orientation or Aspect	127	(1)
Geology	127	(1)
Soil	128	(1)
Interflow and Baseflow	128	(1)
Runoff Characteristics --- the Hydrograph	129	(3)
Predicting Volume of Stormflow and Total Runoff	132	(3)
Prediction of Peak Runoff Rate	135	(12)
Graphical Peak Discharge Method	135	(5)
The Rational Equation	140	(2)
USGS Empirical Regression Models	142	(5)
Stormwater Hydrographs	147	(5)
Unit Hydrograph Methods	147	(3)
Time-Area Method	150	(1)
The Kinematic Approach	151	(1)
Assessment of Flood Estimation Techniques	152	(1)
Agricultural Land Drainage Modifications	152	(4)
Surface Improvements	153	(1)
Subsurface Improvements	154	(1)
Perceptions	155	(1)
Determining Subsurface Drainage Flows	156	(1)
Flow Duration and Water Yield	157	(4)
Problems	159	(2)
Stream Processes	161	(46)
Introduction	161	(1)
Interaction of Streams with the Landscape	162	(3)
The Influence of Temporal and Spatial Scales on Geomorphology	162	(1)
Basic Terms and Geomorphic Work	163	(2)
Stream Orders	165	(2)
Stream Biota	167	(3)
Stream Characteristics	170	(7)
Channel Profile	170	(1)
Stream Channel Patterns	170	(2)
Stream Dimensions	172	(2)
Regional and Stream-Type Curves	174	(3)
Stream Stability and Sediment Transport	177	(3)
The Source of Sediment	177	(1)
Shear Stresses and Tractive Force	177	(1)
Sediment Transport	178	(1)
Bank Stability	178	(2)
Meander Migration, Floodplains, and Streamways	180	(2)
Stream Classification	182	(12)
Mountain Stream Morphology Classes	183	(4)
An Alternative Mountain Stream Classification System	187	(1)
Rosgen Stream Classification Method	187	(4)
Using Stream Classification Methods	191	(3)
Channel Evolution	194	(3)
Disturbance	194	(2)
Evolution Models	196	(1)
What to Measure and Why the Measurement Should Be Made	197	(10)
Site Selection and Reconnaissance at a Watershed Scale	198	(1)
Drainage Area Determination	199	(1)
Discharge and Sediment Data	199	(1)
Channel Properties	199	(2)
The Elusive Nature of Bankfull (Effective Discharge) Dimensions	201	(2)
Bed Material Characterization	203	(2)
Problems	205	(2)
Uniform Open Channel Flow	207	(20)
Introduction	207	(1)
Flow Velocity and Discharge	207	(7)
Continuity and Manning's Equation	207	(4)
Approximation and Estimation Errors	211	(1)
The Darcy-Weisbach Equation	212	(2)
Compound Channels	214	(2)
Channel Modifications	216	(2)
Grassed Waterways	218	(1)
Two-Stage Channel Design	218	(9)
Benefits and Costs of a Two-Stage Ditch	221	(1)
Sizing a Two-Stage Ditch	222	(1)
Other Applications	222	(2)
Problems	224	(3)
Hydraulic Control Structures	227	(28)
Introduction	227	(1)
Specific Energy and Critical Discharge	227	(2)
Weirs, Flumes, and Culverts	229	(6)
Bendway Weirs, Vanes, and Barbs	235	(1)
Routing Flows through Channels and Rivers	236	(4)
Routing Flow through Reservoirs	240	(15)
Determination of Stage-Storage Relationships	242	(1)
Detention or Residence Time	242	(3)
Sediment Storage in Large Reservoirs	245	(1)
Estimating Sediment Storage in Management Ponds	246	(4)
Spillways	250	(3)
Problems	253	(2)
Soil Conservation and Sediment Budgets	255	(36)
Introduction	255	(1)
Factors Affecting Erosion by Water	255	(1)
Climate	255	(1)
Soil	256	(1)
Vegetation	256	(1)
Topography	256	(1)
Types of Erosion	256	(3)
Interrill Erosion	256	(1)
Rill Erosion	257	(1)
Gully Erosion	257	(1)
Stream Channel Erosion	258	(1)
Estimating Soil Losses	259	(1)
The Universal Soil Loss Equation	259	(9)
Rainfall Erosivity R	260	(1)
Soil Erodibility K	261	(1)
Topographic Factor LS	262	(1)
Cover Management Factor C	263	(3)
Erosion Control Practice P	266	(2)
Soil Loss Tolerance T	268	(1)
Applications of the Universal Soil Loss Equation	268	(1)
Downstream Sediment Yields	269	(1)
Single-Event Sediment Yields	270	(1)
Estimating Seasonal C Factors for Agricultural Crops	270	(2)
Sediment Budget Concepts	272	(19)
Introduction	272	(1)
Sediment Delivery from Slopes	273	(1)
Sediment in Streams	273	(1)
The Southern Piedmont	273	(3)
Hydraulic Mining in California	276	(2)
The Driftless Area of the Upper Midwest	278	(7)
Urban Streams	285	(4)
Problems	289	(2)
Hydrology of Forests, Wetlands, and Cold Climates	291	(30)
Introduction	291	(1)
How Are Forests Different?	292	(1)
Forest Climates --- Rain and Snow	293	(2)
Characteristics of Snow	294	(1)
Interception --- Rain, Snow, and Fog	295	(2)
Rain Interception	295	(1)
Snow Interception	296	(1)
Fog Drip	297	(1)
Energy Balance in Forests	297	(1)
Evapotranspiration	298	(1)
Snowmelt	299	(2)
Snowmelt Modeling over a Watershed	300	(1)
Snow Cover Distribution	300	(1)
Critical Temperature for Rain-Snow Transition	300	(1)
Infiltration	301	(1)
Subsurface Flow (Interflow)	301	(2)
Surface Runoff	303	(1)
Streamflow and Watershed Hydrology	304	(4)
Erosion --- Sediment Budget	308	(3)
Sheet-and-Rill Erosion	308	(1)
Gully Erosion	309	(1)
Channel Erosion	309	(1)
Mass Wasting	310	(1)
Deforestation, Fires, and Silviculture	311	(2)
Deforestation Associated with Agriculture	311	(1)
Deforestation Associated with Silviculture	312	(1)
Impacts of Deforestation	312	(1)
Wildfires	313	(1)
Rangelands and Grazing	313	(1)
Introduction	313	(1)
Upland Slopes	313	(1)
Stream Channels	313	(1)
Wetlands	314	(7)
Definitions and Importance	314	(1)
Identification of Wetlands	315	(2)
Problems	317	(4)
Hydrogeology	321	(18)
Introduction	321	(1)
Characterization of Groundwater Flow	321	(6)
Groundwater Flow Patterns and Stream Interaction	327	(4)
Flow to Wells	331	(3)
Capture Zones of Wells	334	(2)
Fracture Flow	336	(1)
Fracture Flow in Rock	336	(1)
Fracture Flow in Unconsolidated Materials	337	(1)
Groundwater Vulnerability	337	(2)
Problems	337	(2)
Human Impacts on the Hydrologic Cycle: Prevention and Treatment Strategies	339	(34)
Introduction	339	(1)
Human Impacts on Stream Health	340	(2)
Biological Assessment Methods	340	(2)
Urban Impacts	342	(3)
Frequency Analysis	345	(4)
Flood Forecasting and Management	349	(5)
Flood Forecasts	349	(1)
Flood Zones	350	(1)
Flood Management	350	(1)
Channel Modification for Flood Mitigation	351	(3)
Reducing Runoff from Urban Areas	354	(4)
Detention and Retention Ponds	358	(6)
Using Detention/Retention Ponds to Improve Water Quality	359	(1)
Sizing Detention Ponds to Improve Water Quality	360	(3)
Detention Ponds for Channel Stability	363	(1)
Wetlands as Water Treatment Systems	364	(4)
Hydraulic and Treatment Characteristics	366	(1)
Using Constructed Wetlands to Treat Livestock Wastewater	367	(1)
Landfills	368	(5)
Introduction	368	(1)
Landfill Processes	369	(1)
Surface Water Management in Landfills	369	(1)
Leachate Management in Landfills	370	(1)
Landfill Water Balance	371	(1)
Hydrology and Landfills	372	(1)
Fundamentals of Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems for Hydrologic Applications	373	(16)
Introduction	373	(3)
What Are Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems?	373	(1)
Mapping Science and Engineering Technologies	373	(1)
Geographic Information Systems	373	(1)
Remote Sensing	374	(1)
Photointerpretation	374	(1)
Photogrammetry	375	(1)
Surveying	376	(1)
Products	376	(1)
Photographs and Images	376	(1)
Maps	377	(1)
Digital Images	377	(1)
Parts of the Spectrum and Radiation Characteristics	377	(6)
Visible, Infrared, and Thermal Infrared	378	(1)
Radar	378	(1)
Radiation	378	(1)
Lambert's Law	379	(1)
Projected Source Area	380	(1)
Isotropic Source	381	(1)
Solid Angle	381	(1)
Radiance	382	(1)
Spectral Relative Units	382	(1)
Data Types and Databases	383	(2)
Data Types	383	(1)
Raster	384	(1)
Vector	384	(1)
Attributes	384	(1)
Databases	384	(1)
Aerial Photo Databases	384	(1)
Digitial Elevation Model	384	(1)
Digital Terrain Model, Digital Line Graph, and Other Data	384	(1)
North American Landscape Characterization	385	(1)
Remote Sensing Characteristics of Water	385	(1)
Applications	385	(4)
General Characteristics of Applications	385	(1)
Planning	385	(1)
Site Determination	386	(1)
Management	386	(1)
Best Management Practices	386	(1)
Water Resource Applications	386	(1)
Quantity	386	(1)
Quality and Nonpoint Sources	387	(1)
Erosion Studies and Wetlands	387	(1)
Hazardous Waste	387	(2)
Practical Exercises on Conducting and Reporting Hydrologic Studies	389	(24)
Introduction	389	(1)
Conducting a Hydrologic Study	389	(1)
Define the Question	389	(1)
Conduct a Preliminary Investigation	389	(1)
Undertaking Detailed Planning	390	(1)
Conducting the Detailed Study	390	(1)
Reporting a Hydrologic Study	390	(1)
Report Contents	391	(2)
General Guidelines for Preparing Exercise Reports	393	(1)
Precipitation (see theory in Chapter 2)	394	(2)
Introduction	394	(1)
Time Trends	394	(1)
Frequency and Magnitude	394	(1)
Spatial Distribution	395	(1)
Evaporation (see theory in Chapter 4)	396	(1)
Annual Lake Evaporation (Surrogate for Potential Evapotranspiration)	396	(1)
Daily and Monthly Lake Evaporation	396	(1)
Estimating Actual Evapotranspiration Rates	397	(1)
Runoff (see theory in Chapter 5)	397	(3)
Introduction	397	(3)
Flow Duration (see theory in Chapter 5)	400	(2)
Introduction	400	(2)
Storm Runoff, Totals, and Peaks (see theory in Chapter 5)	402	(3)
Erosion and Elementary Sediment Routing (see theory in Chapter 6)	405	(2)
Streamflow Measurement in the Field (see theory in Chapter 7)	407	(1)
Gaging Streamflow by Instrument	407	(1)
Gaging Streamflow by the Float Method	407	(1)
Stream Gaging Exercise	407	(1)
Watershed or Drainage Basin Morphology (see theory in Chapter 7)	407	(4)
Introduction	407	(4)
The Practical Use of Soil Surveys for Environmental Management	411	(2)
Introduction	411	(1)
The Practical Use of Soils Maps for Management	411	(2)
References	413	(16)
Appendix A Unit Conversion Factors	429	(2)
Appendix B Glossary	431	(14)
Appendix C Precipitation Frequency-Magnitude Information for the United States	445	(8)
Appendix D Hydrologic Soil Group and Erodibility Factors for the Most Common Soils in Each State:	453	(8)
Appendix E Sources of Data and Images	461	(4)
Index	465